Monitoring forest emissions: a review of methodsWertz-Kanounnikoff, SCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2008http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP39Wertz-Kanounnikoff.pdfSeries19p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2602IDReducing forest emissions in the Amazon Basin: a review of drivers of land-use change and how payments for environmental services (PES) schemes can affect themWertz-Kanounnikoff, S.Kongphan-Apirak, MettaWunder, SCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2008http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP40Wertz-Kanounnikoff.pdfSeries21p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2603IDReducing forest emissions in Southeast Asia: A review of drivers of land-use change and how payments for environmental services (PES) schemes can affect themWertz-Kanounnikoff, S.Kongphan-Apirak, MettaCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2008http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP41Wertz-Kanounnikoff.pdfSeries19p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2604IDEstimating the costs of reducing forest emissions: a review of methodsWertz-Kanounnikoff, SCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2008http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP42Wertz-Kanounnikoff.pdfSeries17p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2605IDGobernanza Ambiental y el surgimiento de movimientos forestales de baseCronkleton, P.Taylor, P.L.Barry, D.Stone-Jovicich, S.Schmink, MCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2008community forestryconservationprotected areassocial participationcommunity actionhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-49-Spanish.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-49.pdfCIFOR Publicationiv; 36p.esCIFOR Head Quarter2568GT854-9818The Revival of industrial forest plantations in Indonesia's Kalimantan Provinces: Will they help eliminate fiber shortfalls at Sumatran pulp mills or feed the China marketPirard, R.Cossalter, CCIFORBogor, Indonesia2006pulp and paper industrypulpwoodSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter2524IDEnvironmental governance and the emergence of forest-based social movementsCronkleton, P.Taylor, P.L.Barry, D.Stone-Jovicich, S.Schmink, MBogor, Indonesia2008community forestryconservationprotected areassocial participationgrassroots organizationscommunity actionThis occasional paper is based on the results of a three-year project examining the emergence of forest-based grassroots movements in Latin America. Funded by the Ford Foundation, the Support to Grassroots Community Forestry Organizations in Central America and Brazil Project sought to understand how grassroots groups develop and influence conservation and development. The project focused on four noteworthy cases in Central America and Brazil, each representing &lsquo;successful&rsquo; broad-based collective action to defend local control and use of forest lands. Cases included the Association of Forest Communities of the Petén in Guatemala, the Siuna Farmerto-Farmer exchange programme in Nicaragua, the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve in the Brazilian state of Amazonas, and the Brazilian rubber tapper movement in Acre. Although the context and outcomes varied, in these cases grassroots collective action to defend local livelihoods emerged when initially weak government institutions attempted to counteract chaotic frontier conditions through the imposition of conservation and development initiatives, provoking local resistance. A combination of indigenous capacity for collective organization and significant external assistance helped produce grassroots forest movements capable of becoming proactive partners in the management and defence of protected areas. These groups still confront external incursions into their hard-won resources rights and strive to respond to changing membership needs. The cases suggest that local communities can become effective forest stewards when acquired rights are duly recognized, avenues exist for meaningful participation, costs and benefits are distributed fairly, and appropriate external support is provided. http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-49.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-49-Spanish.pdfSeries36p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2348IDLogging for the ark: improving the conservation value of production forests in South East AsiaGustafsson, L.Nasi, R.Dennis, R.A.Nguyen Hoang NghiaSheil, D.Meijaard, E.Dykstra, D.P.Priyadi, H.Pham Quang ThuCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2007tropical forestssecondary forestsbiodiversityconservationloggingforest managementcode of practicecertificationguidelinesIn order to maintain the high levels of biodiversity and the ecological functions of tropical forest landscapes in South East Asia, production forests need to be managed in a more sustainable way. Numerous initiatives already exist in the form of codes of practice, criteria and indicators, and certification schemes in the countries of South East Asia, but to date such guidelines and standards have been vague and have lacked quantitative targets. Reducedimpact logging (RIL) is a concept related to techniques and practices that aim to achieve environmentally sound timber harvesting; the concept has gained broad acceptance in the tropics. As yet, however, RIL guidelines have focused mainly on environmental aspects such as soil and water, and have taken the flora and fauna into account to a minor degree only. In this report, detailed recommendations are made to help forest managers take account of biodiversity conservation in dipterocarp logged-over and primary natural forests where mechanised logging is practised. The recommendations are based on those made in the CIFOR publication Life after Logging, further developed through three workshops held under a joint project between the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, CIFOR and the Forest Science Institute of Vietnam. The recommendations are linked to the different phases of the forestry cycle: i.e. planning (inventories of sensitive species and habitats, delimitation of set-aside areas and riparian buffers), infrastructure (logging camps, roads, bridges, skid-trails, landings), logging (retention of critical structures, micro-habitats, key resources, felling techniques, harvesting intensity, site-adaption), post-logging (understorey slashing, rehabilitation of log-landings and stream crossings, re-forestation), and monitoring (biodiversity inventories). Issues related to hunting, fire, invasive species, domestic animals, traffic, and logging and conservation for local people are also covered.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-48.pdf Series74p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2301IDPoverty and forests: multi-country analysis of spatial association and proposed policy solutionsSunderlin, W.D.Dewi, S.Puntodewo, ACenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2007povertypoverty alleviationforest resourcesspatial distributionspatial variationland ownershipforest productsmarketscommunity forestrycompaniespartnershipsThis paper examines poverty and deforestation in developing countries as linked problems and focuses on policies that can favour poverty alleviation in forested regions. The paper encompasses two elements: analysis of the spatial coincidence between poverty and forests, and proposed policy options for reducing poverty in forested areas. It is assumed that three key frames of reference must be borne in mind in order to produce the best possible policies: (1) the location of the rural poor and types and levels of poverty in relation to forest resources; (2) variations in the density of forest cover in relation to distance from urban areas (the von Thünen scale); and (3) variations in forest cover over time (high, low, then partial restoration) in relation to a country&rsquo;s forest transition experience. There are three main conclusions linked to these frames of reference. (1) Although relatively few people live in areas of high forest cover, they tend to be characterised by high rates of poverty and they are among the &lsquo;poorest of the poor&rsquo;. (2) Four policy approaches are recommended for lifting people out of poverty: transfer of ownership of forest lands from governments to forest dwellers; facilitation of access to forest product markets; promotion of commercial-scale community forestry and company&ndash;community partnerships; and establishment of payments for forest environmental services that are pro-poor. Implementation of these four strategies must take into account the implications of the four von Thünen zones (periurban, agricultural mosaic, forest frontier, and relatively undisturbed forests). (3) One cannot place blind faith in economic growth and laissez-faire for reducing poverty in forested areas. Strategic policy interventions are necessary to assist the process of livelihood improvement. http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-47.pdf978-979-14-1221-6Book44p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2294BRCapturing nested spheres of poverty: a model for multidimensional poverty analysis and monitoringGonner, C.Haug, M.Cahyat, A.Wollenberg, E.de Jong, W.Limberg, G.Cronkleton, P.Moeliono, M.Becker, MCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2007povertymeasurementmonitoringmodels<a href="http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/povertyindicators/">click to see more information</a>In this paper the authors discuss recent trends in poverty concepts and suggest a locally adapted multidimensional model for measuring and monitoring poverty. The model comprises nested layers with subjective wellbeing in the centre surrounded by a core of health, wealth and knowledge, and a context that includes natural, economic, social and political spheres, as well as service and structural aspects. These nine facets of poverty cover basic needs, individual assets and capabilities, and the enabling environment that helps people escape poverty by ensuring sustainability, providing opportunities and minimising vulnerability. The model was tested in several monitoring trials and in the official poverty and wellbeing monitoring of Kutai Barat District, Indonesia, in early 2006. Twenty-one subdistricts covering 223 villages with more than 150 000 people were assessed. Examples drawn from this experience illustrate possible applications of the model.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-46.pdfSeries24p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2255IDThe assessment and monitoring of forest resources and forestry products statistics in ChinaLiu DachangCossalter, CCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2006http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP36Dachang.pdfSeries16p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2193CNAn evaluation of the feasibility and benefits of forest partnerships to develop tree plantations: case studies in the PhilippinesCalderon, M.M.Nawir, A.ACenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2006partnershipsforest plantationsforest policycommunity forestrycompaniesmarketshttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP27Nawir.pdfSeries72p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2139PHForests, illegality, and livelihoods in CameroonCerutti, P.O.Tacconi, LCIFORBogor, Indonesia2006illicit fellinglogginglivelihoodsrural communitiesconcessionsforest policyConcern about illegal logging has grown considerably over the past decade due to the interest in its environmental impacts, and more recently as a result of its perceived impacts on livelihoods. The authors find that the reality of illegal logging is much more nuanced than has been depicted and that there is a need to focus on illegal forest activities (IFAs) beyond just illegal harvest. This paper shows that the illegal log harvest in Cameroon is smaller than previously thought and that, in recent years, small-scale operators forced to operate illegally by an illicit ministerial decision contributed a significant share. This paper provides suggestions to the government and donor community about priority areas for interventions related to IFAs, sustainability, and livelihoods. These include allowing small-scale logging operations as a way to reverse the historical marginalization of rural people and reducing the misuse of the forest area tax, which is supposed to benefit rural communities.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-35.pdfSeries22p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2108CMWhere are the poor and where are the trees?: targeting of poverty reduction and forest conservation in Vietnam (Vietnamese)Muller, D.Epprecht, M.Sunderlin, W.DCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2006povertyforestsspatial distributionAlso available in EnglishThis paper highlights the spatial linkages of forest quality with poverty incidence and poverty density in Vietnam. Most of the Vietnamese poor live in densely populated river deltas and cities while remote upland areas have the highest poverty incidences, gaps, and severities. Forests of high local and global value are located in areas where relatively few poor people live, but where the incidence, gap, and severity of poverty are strongest, and where the livelihood strategies are based on agricultural and forest activities. Analysis was conducted combining country-wide spatial data on commune-level poverty estimates and the geographic distribution of forest quality. The results suggest the usefulness of targeting investments in remote areas that combine poverty reduction and environmental sustainability.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-34.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-34Vietnamese.pdfSeries20p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2051CMForests and human health: assessing the evidenceColfer, C.J.P.Sheil, D.Kishi, MCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2006healthhuman diseasestropical forestsfoodsmedicinal plantsmedicinecultureindigenous knowledgerural communitiesThis study has two central concerns: the state of human health in forests, and the causal links between forests and human health. Within this framework, we consider four issues related to tropical forests and human health. First, we discuss forest foods, emphasizing the forest as a food-producing habitat, human dependence on forest foods, the nutritional contributions of such foods, and nutrition-related problems that affect forest peoples. Our second topic is disease and other health problems. In addition to the major problems&mdash;HIV/AIDS, malaria, Ebola and mercury poisoning&mdash;we address some 20 other tropical diseases and health problems related to forests. The third topic is medicinal products. We review the biophysical properties of medicinal species and consider related indigenous knowledge, human uses of medicinal forest products, the serious threats to forest sustainability, and the roles of traditional healers, with a discussion of the benefits of forest medicines and conflicts over their distribution. Our fourth and final topic is the cultural interpretations of human health found among forest peoples, including holistic world views that impinge on health and indigenous knowledge. The Occasional Paper concludes with some observations about the current state of our knowledge, its utility and shortcomings, and our suggestions for future research.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-45.pdfSeries111p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2037CM0854-9818Asia pulp and paper Indonesia: the business rationale that led to forest degradation and financial collapsePirard, R.Rokhim, RCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2006pulp and paper industrydegraded forestsSeries23p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2033IDWhere are the poor and where are the trees?: targeting of poverty reduction and forest conservation in VietnamMuller, D.Epprecht, M.Sunderlin, W.DCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia2006povertyforestsspatial distributionAlso available in VietnameseThis paper highlights the spatial linkages of forest quality with poverty incidence and poverty density in Vietnam. Most of the Vietnamese poor live in densely populated river deltas and cities while remote upland areas have the highest poverty incidences, gaps, and severities. Forests of high local and global value are located in areas where relatively few poor people live, but where the incidence, gap, and severity of poverty are strongest, and where the livelihood strategies are based on agricultural and forest activities. Analysis was conducted combining country-wide spatial data on commune-level poverty estimates and the geographic distribution of forest quality. The results suggest the usefulness of targeting investments in remote areas that combine poverty reduction and environmental sustainability.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-34.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-34Vietnamese.pdfSeries20p.enCIFOR Head Quarter2026IDA method to assess the outcomes of forest product trade on livelihoods and the environmentKusters, K.Belcher, B.Ruiz Perez, M.Achdiawan, RCIFORBogor, Indonesia2005non-timber forest productstradeconservationdevelopmentlivelihoodsimpactassessmentmethodologyAs part of a multi-collaborator research project on the potential of non-timber forest product (NTFP) trade for conservation and development the authors designed tools to assess the effects of NTFP trade on people&rsquo;s livelihoods and the environment. To assess livelihood outcomes of NTFP trade they used the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods framework and identified indicators to capture changes in financial, physical, natural, human and social assets at the household and community level. They also selected indicators to assess livelihood related changes at the national level. To assess the environmental impacts of commercial NTFP production this paper identified indicators at four levels: target species population, land use ecosystem, landscape, and global level. The method presented in this paper is meant to provide a time and cost effective tool to measure the effects of NTFP trade, based on expert judgment. The paper first presents a brief overview of the research project and the challenges faced in the design of the method, followed by a description of the method. http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP32Kusters.pdfSeries23p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1937IDMemerangi kejahatan kehutanan dan mendorong prinsip kehati-hatian perbankan untuk mewujudkan pengelolaan hutan yang berkelanjutan: pendekatan anti pencucian uangSetiono, B.Husein, YCIFORBogor, Indonesia2005illicit loggingforest managementforestry lawmonetary policybanksAlso available in EnglishIf illegal logging was a crime involving only poor forest-dependent people, truck drivers or underpaid forest rangers, it would not be difficult to stop. With involvement of financiers of illegal logging, known as cukong, legal timber industries, and government officers, illegal logging becomes a complex problem not only for Indonesia, but also for the international forestry community. The current forestry law enforcement approach fails to capture the masterminds of illegal logging. However, the money laundering law enforcement approach which &lsquo;follows the money&rsquo; provides an important option to deal with the masterminds of illegal logging. This new approach requires banks and other financial service providers to be more active and prudent in dealing with financial transactions related to their customers. Bank customers could include financiers of illegal logging, timber industries, law enforcement and government officers. Overall, proper implementation of the anti money laundering regime should provide opportunities for promoting prudent banking practices and sustainable forest management, and for curtailing forestry crimes.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-44i.pdfSeries29p.idCIFOR Head Quarter1896IDFighting forest crime and promoting prudent banking for sustainable forest management: the anti money laundering approachSetiono, B.Husein, YCIFORBogor, Indonesia2005illicit loggingforest managementforestry lawmonetary policybanksAlso available in IndonesianIf illegal logging was a crime involving only poor forest-dependent people, truck drivers or underpaid forest rangers, it would not be difficult to stop. With involvement of financiers of illegal logging, known as cukong, legal timber industries, and government officers, illegal logging becomes a complex problem not only for Indonesia, but also for the international forestry community. The current forestry law enforcement approach fails to capture the masterminds of illegal logging. However, the money laundering law enforcement approach which &lsquo;follows the money&rsquo; provides an important option to deal with the masterminds of illegal logging. This new approach requires banks and other financial service providers to be more active and prudent in dealing with financial transactions related to their customers. Bank customers could include financiers of illegal logging, timber industries, law enforcement and government officers. Overall, proper implementation of the anti money laundering regime should provide opportunities for promoting prudent banking practices and sustainable forest management, and for curtailing forestry crimes.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-44.pdfSeries25p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1881IDRecent experience in collaborative forest management: a review paperCarter, J.Gronow, JCIFORBogor, Indonesia2005forest managementcollaborationpartnershipsreviewsinstitutionsgovernmentcommunitiesCollaborative forest management (CFM) is loosely defined as a working partnership between the key stakeholders in the management of a given forest&mdash;key stakeholders being local forest users and state forest departments, as well as parties such as local governments, civic groups and nongovernmental organisations, and the private sector. The paper reviews worldwide experience in CFM to date, considering the forms that it takes in different tenure situations. Overall, mechanisms of CFM are diversifying, reflecting a greater recognition of the need for partnerships in forest management. Due to entrenched power structures within both government institutions and communities, it is not easy to promote social justice and sustainable livelihoods through CFM. Nevertheless, examples exist of local people gaining a strong, legally backed voice in forest management. Whether or not CFM is financially viable depends very much on local circumstances&mdash;an important issue is the inclusion of all costs and values. CFM can clearly lead to better forest management, although examples of silvicultural innovations specifically designed to meet CFM needs are limited. Worldwide, the institutionalisation of CFM is proceeding at a different pace and to differing degrees. Whilst some of the most rapid recent CFM developments have taken place in the North, where government forest institutions are well funded and accountable, and civil society well organised, the most significant gains made to date probably lie in countries of the South and East, wherever local people have begun to enjoy real partnerships in forest management, based on recognised rights of use and access.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-43.pdfSeriesv, 48p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1791IDLinking social movements: how international networks can better support community action about forestsWollenberg, E.Colchester, M.Mbugua, G.Griffiths, TCIFORBogor, Indonesia2005International networks in community forestry face challenges in linking with local social movements. We examine four efforts of international networks to overcome these challenges and better link with local people in Peru, Brazil, India and Kenya. The examples demonstrate that the networks created effective links by making funds available for meetings and local data collection; providing international analyses that helped people understand their own situation better; sharing strategies for media, policy and letter campaigns; helping to disseminate information about local people&rsquo;s priorities, providing independent assessments and building local people&rsquo;s confidence. Efforts to improve communications technologies required a better understanding of local conditions. Networks will be more relevant to local movements to the extent that they are regularly active at the local level, can respond flexibly to local needs and small-scale events, and work with an array of national partners. The effectiveness of networks in carrying out these tasks may require a careful balance between linking to versus working at the local level.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP31Wollenberg.pdfSeries12p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1927IDPayments for environmental services: some nuts and boltsWunder, S2005environmental serviceslivelihoodsrural communitiesconservationincentiveseconomicsPayments for environmental services (PES) are part of a new and more direct conservation paradigm, explicitly recognizing the need to bridge the interests of landowners and outsiders. Eloquent theoretical assessments have praised the absolute advantages of PES over traditional conservation approaches. Some pilot PES exist in the tropics, but many field practitioners and prospective service buyers and sellers remain skeptical about the concept. This paper aims to help demystify PES for non-economists, starting with a simple and coherent definition of the term. It then provides practical &lsquo;how-to&rsquo; hints for PES design. It considers the likely niche for PES in the portfolio of conservation approaches. This assessment is based on a literature review, combined with field observations from research in Latin America and Asia. It concludes that service users will continue to drive PES, but their willingness to pay will only rise if schemes can demonstrate clear additionality vis-à-vis carefully established baselines, if trust-building processes with service providers are sustained, and PES recipients&rsquo; livelihood dynamics is better understood. PES best suits intermediate and/or projected threat scenarios, often in marginal lands with moderate conservation opportunity costs. People facing credible but medium-sized environmental degradation are more likely to become PES recipients than those living in relative harmony with Nature. The choice between PES cash and in-kind payments is highly context-dependent. Poor PES recipients are likely to gain from participation, though their access might be constrained and non-participating landless poor could lose out. PES is a highly promising conservation approach that can benefit buyers, sellers and improve the resource base, but it is unlikely to completely outstrip other conservation instruments.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-42.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-42S.pdfSeries24p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1760BOMoving towards company-community partnerships: elements to take into account for fast-wood plantation companies in IndonesiaMaturana, J.Hosgood, N.Suhartanto, A.A2005plantationsforest plantationscompaniesrural communitiesland ownershippartnershipscommunity involvementAlso available in IndonesianThis study looks at two important fast-wood plantation issues in Indonesia, the impact of land claims and the role of partnership schemes. The study was conducted in collaboration with some of the nation&rsquo;s largest plantation companies. Land claims have a significant impact on plantation companies and continue to affect a sizeable land area, despite the many years and costly efforts of companies to reduce the size and number of these claims. Partnership schemes have achieved very modest results, with many communities preferring not to participate in planting fast-wood trees. This document examines land claims using historical data. It also details the use by communities of a recently developed &lsquo;participatory&rsquo; method to bring light to these issues. Although the data and analysis is focused on Indonesia, the conclusions may be applied to similar situations in other tropical countries and help improve the ways companies and communities co-exist and engage with each other. http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP29Maturana.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP29Maturana_ina.pdfSeriesviii, 49p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1761IDMenuju kemitraan perusahaan&ndash;masyarakat: elemen-elemen yang perlu dipertimbangkan oleh perusahaan perkebunan kayu di IndonesiaMaturana, J.Hosgood, N.Suhartanto, A.A2005Also available in Englishhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP29Maturana_ina.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP29Maturana.pdfSeriesix, 52p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1762IDEconomic costs and benefits of allocating forest land for industrial tree plantation development in IndonesiaMaturana, J2005land useforest plantationsforest products industriespulp and paper industrytimbersproductioncost benefit analysisAlso available in IndonesianThe allocation of large areas of State owned forest land for the development of Industrial Timber Plantations (HTI) in Indonesia has been very important in supporting the economically-important pulp and paper industry. This allocation resulted in totally clearing vast areas of forests already logged for their prime timber and the elimination of the many environmental and social benefits these areas provide. This CIFOR working paper analyzes the economic costs and benefits of the allocation of nearly 1.4 million hectares of logged-over forests to five large pulp-plantation companies in Sumatra. The results and conclusions may be particularly relevant for future forestry policy in Indonesia.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP30Maturana.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP30Maturana_ina.pdfSeriesvii, 24p. + annexes.enCIFOR Head Quarter1763IDBiaya dan manfaat ekonomi dari pengalokasian lahan hutan untuk pengembangan hutan tanaman industri di Indonesia: Economic costs and benefits of allocating forest land for industrial tree plantation development in IndonesiaMaturana, J2005land useforest plantationsforest products industriespulp and paper industrytimbersproductioncost benefit analysisAlso available in EnglishThe allocation of large areas of State owned forest land for the development of Industrial Timber Plantations (HTI) in Indonesia has been very important in supporting the economically-important pulp and paper industry. This allocation resulted in totally clearing vast areas of forests already logged for their prime timber and the elimination of the many environmental and social benefits these areas provide. This CIFOR working paper analyzes the economic costs and benefits of the allocation of nearly 1.4 million hectares of logged-over forests to five large pulp-plantation companies in Sumatra. The results and conclusions may be particularly relevant for future forestry policy in Indonesia.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP30Maturana_ina.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP30Maturana.pdfSeriesvii, 24p. + annexes.idCIFOR Head Quarter1764IDThe role of collective action in determaining the benefits from IPPK logging concessions: a case study from Sekatak, East KalimantanPalmer, CCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004loggingconcessionscommunity actiondecentralizationgovernancelocal communitySince the reform of Indonesia&rsquo;s Forestry Law in 1999, newly empowered forest- dependent communities have been allowed to negotiate directly with logging companies for access to financial and social benefits. Fieldwork undertaken in May and June 2003 attempted to assess the impacts of this decentralization reform on communities in the subdistrict of Sekatak in Bulungan, East Kalimantan. Results suggest that the process of negotiations influenced the benefits that accrued to these communities. It seems that the most important factors were increased collective action and co-operation among the communities situated in and sharing forest areas, prior experience of dealing and conflicts with logging companies, plus strong and relatively transparent local leadership. Taken together these factors enabled communities to obtain benefits at the higher end of the scale for the area as a whole and provided a mechanism by which to deal with problems as they arose. These results suggest that in the absence of other means by which to protect the interests of local communities and to enforce the law, local capacities for collective action may be a potential and effective substitute for future development.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP28PalmerE0.pdfSeries23p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1566MGCommunautes, forets et reseaux internationux: des liaisons a renforcerColchester, M.Apte, T.Laforge, M.Mandondo, A.Pathak, NCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003CIFORinternational cooperationcommunity forestrynetworkingchangecommunicationreviewsprojectsfundingnon-governmental organizationsRapport de synthese du projet: " Enseignements tires des reseaux internationaux de foresterie communautaire"Community forestry has transformed over the past 25 years from being an experimental means of providing wood-fuel for the rural poor to a community-led movement demanding reform of the forestry sector. International networks to promote community forestry, which emerged at very different moments in this history with different visions, goals, targets and participants, have played a key role in this transformation. Based on a review of seven countries and ten networks, the study compiles the main lessons learned from this experience in term of effectiveness, communications techniques, network governance, relations with donors and linkage to social movements. The increasing mobilisation of community-based organisations means that supportive NGOs and government agencies now need to play a different role to the one they gave themselves 25 years ago.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-41-French.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-41.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-41-Spanish.pdfSeries67p.frCIFOR Head Quarter1434MGCerrando la Brech: comunidades, bosques y redes internacionalesColchester, M.Apte, T.Laforge, M.Mandondo, A.Pathak, NCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003CIFORinternational cooperationcommunity forestrynetworkingchangecommunicationreviewsprojectsfundingnon-governmental organizationsInforme sintetizado del proyecto " Lecciones aprendidas de las redes internacionales de manejo forestal comunal".Community forestry has transformed over the past 25 years from being an experimental means of providing wood-fuel for the rural poor to a community-led movement demanding reform of the forestry sector. International networks to promote community forestry, which emerged at very different moments in this history with different visions, goals, targets and participants, have played a key role in this transformation. Based on a review of seven countries and ten networks, the study compiles the main lessons learned from this experience in term of effectiveness, communications techniques, network governance, relations with donors and linkage to social movements. The increasing mobilisation of community-based organisations means that supportive NGOs and government agencies now need to play a different role to the one they gave themselves 25 years ago.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-41-Spanish.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-41-French.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-41.pdfSeries66p.esCIFOR Head Quarter1435MGYour biosphere is my backyard: the story of Bosawas in NicaraguaKaimowitz, D.Faune, A.Mendoza, RCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003governancedecentralizationresource managementforest managementDespite efforts to establish protected areas around the worl, the authority of government remains weak in forested areas. We examine the largest protected area in Central America, 'Bosawas' National Resource Reserve in Nicaragua, to demonstrate how overlapping systems of governance have encourage rapid ecology destruction and social differentiation, as well as corruption and violence. We conclude that Migdal's observation about forest governance is being guided by 'strong societies and weak states' (1998) is unlikely to change and must be the starting point for the future effortsin decentralized natural resource management.Series19enCIFOR Head Quarter1293NITowards mutually-beneficial company-community partnerships in timber plantation: lessons learnt from IndonesiaNawir, A.A.Santoso, L.Mudhofar, ICIFORBogor, Indonesia2003partnershipsplantationstimberscommunitiescompaniesconcessionsThe biggest challenges in establishing timber plantations in Indonesia concern a range of social aspects, in particular those dealing with people living inside concessions and in the areas surrounding plantations. CIFOR&rsquo;s research shows that a sustainable supply of timber may be achievable through partnership schemes that encourage companies and local communities to work together in sharing both the benefits and risks of investing in plantations. Despite recent private sector support for partnership schemes, there is evidence to suggest companies often do not have a clear idea of the measures needed to ensure tree growers&rsquo; full commitment. In the short-term, companies would not gain economic benefits from the amount of wood produced under partnerships, but more by sharing the risks and benefits with local communities in establishing timber plantations. However, the challenges are complex and the long term viability of partnerships depends on ensuring the partnership can deal with to the changing condition. http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-26.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-26-a13.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-26-a412.pdfSeriesxvi, 77p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1275IDExploring the forest--poverty link: key concepts, issues and research implicationsAngelsen, A.Wunder, SCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003forestscommercializationdecentralizationderegulationforest ownershippartnershipsforest productseconomic developmentpovertysocial welfarerural communitiesrural developmenttimber tradenon-timber forest productsecological servicesThis paper provides a global review of the link from forests to poverty alleviation. Definitions are clarified and the key concepts and indicators related to livelihoods and policy reduction and prevention are explored--distinguishing between the analysis and the measurements of poverty. Reviewing the macro-level literature on the relationship between economic growth, inequality and poverty, the authors found that economic growth usually does trickle down to the poor and that poverty reduction without growth is in practice very difficult to achieve. The potentials and limitations of forests in regard to poverty allevition are canvassed and their possible roles as safety nets, poverty traps and pathways out of poverty are explored. The core discussion addresses how forests can contribute to poverty reduction, distinguishing three main benefit categories. Firstly, non-timber forest products serve subsistence needs, may have important gap filling or safety net functions. Secondly, timber has not traditionally been very pro-poor but the current trends of increased local ownership of natural forests, growing tree commercialisation and small scale wood processing could modify that picture. Thirdly, ecological service payments are emerging rapidly but it is uncertain how much the poor will benefit. In conclusion, this paper outlines ten promising research topics, within three broader fields: assessing current forest-based benefits to the poor; exploring emerging market opportunities; and evaluating cross-cutting institutional and extra-sectoral issues.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-40.pdfSeriesviii, 58p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1211IDBridging the gap: communities, forests and international networksColchester, M.Apte, T.Laforge, M.Mandondo, A.Pathak, NCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003CIFORinternational cooperationcommunity forestrynetworkingchangecommunicationreviewsprojectsdevelopment aidnon-governmental organizationsSynthesis report of the project 'Learning lessons from International Community Forestry Networks'Community forestry has transformed over the past 25 years from being an experimental means of providing wood-fuel for the rural poor to a community-led movement demanding reform of the forestry sector. International networks to promote community forestry, which emerged at very different moments in this history with different visions, goals, targets and participants, have played a key role in this transformation. Based on a review of seven countries and ten networks, the study compiles the main lessons learned from this experience in term of effectiveness, communications techniques, network governance, relations with donors and linkage to social movements. The increasing mobilisation of community-based organisations means that supportive NGOs and government agencies now need to play a different role to the one they gave themselves 25 years ago.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-41.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-41-Spanish.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-41-French.pdfSeriesvii, 60p.; ill.enCIFOR Head Quarter1277IDKebakaran hutan di Indonesia: penyebab, biaya dan implikasi kebijakanTacconi, LCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003forest fireseconomic impactdeforestationdegraded forestsassessmentforest policyAlso available in EnglishFires are considered a potential threat to sustainable development for their direct impacts on ecosystems, their contribution to carbon emissions, and impacts on biodiversity. In 1997/98, Indonesia had the most severe fires worldwide, and smoke haze pollution recurs yearly. The fire-related policy problems are defined as smoke haze pollution, forest degradation and deforestation, and impacts on the rural sector. Some of the apparent major causes of the problems are identified. The estimate of area affected by fires in 1997/98 is revised from 9.7 million hectares to 11.7 million hectares. The fires that resulted in forest degradation and deforestation caused economic costs in the range of $1.62-2.7 billion. The costs of smoke haze pollution were in the range of $674-799 million, and probably higher because estimates for the economic impacts on Indonesian business activities were not available. The valuation of costs associated with carbon emissions indicates that these may amount to as much as $2.8 billion. The revised estimates of economic costs from fires and smoke haze are still substantial and point to significant problems to be addressed to avoid similar impacts. Detailed policy recommendations are presented.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-038i.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-038.pdfSeries28p.idCIFOR Head Quarter1200IDFuelwood revisited: what has changed in the last decade?Arnold, J.E.M.Kohlin, G.Persson, R.Shepherd, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003fuelwoodcharcoaldemandenergy sourcesfuel consumptionnon-timber forest productssupplyrural welfarerural communitiesrural urban relationsreviewsThe impact of woodfuel collection on forests has been controversial and its role in rural livelihoods and deforestation the subject of considerable debate. This study reviews the main dimensions of this discourse and the resulting responses from the forestry sector. It assesses new information that has come to light over the past decade, looking at national and global trends in woodfuel production and use and the evolution of patterns of urban and rural demand and supply. It examines livelihood and environmental dimensions of relevance to forestry and outlines some of the main issues that warrant additional attention. It is thus intended more as a foundation for further discussion, rather than being a set of prescriptions for action by forestry, though where these are evident they are identified.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-39.pdfSeriesviii, 35p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1197IDFires in Indonesia: causes, costs and policy implicationsTacconi, LCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003forest firesburningcarbon dioxidecostsemissioneconomic impactdeforestationdegraded forestsland clearanceland degradationenvironmental policyassessmentforest policyAlso available in IndonesianFires are considered a potential threat to sustainable development for their direct impacts on ecosystems, their contribution to carbon emissions, and impacts on biodiversity. In 1997/98, Indonesia had the most severe fires worldwide, and smoke haze pollution recurs yearly. The fire-related policy problems are defined as smoke haze pollution, forest degradation and deforestation, and impacts on the rural sector. Some of the apparent major causes of the problems are identified. The estimate of area affected by fires in 1997/98 is revised from 9.7 million hectares to 11.7 million hectares. The fires that resulted in forest degradation and deforestation caused economic costs in the range of $1.62-2.7 billion. The costs of smoke haze pollution were in the range of $674-799 million, and probably higher because estimates for the economic impacts on Indonesian business activities were not available. The valuation of costs associated with carbon emissions indicates that these may amount to as much as $2.8 billion. The revised estimates of economic costs from fires and smoke haze are still substantial and point to significant problems to be addressed to avoid similar impacts. Detailed policy recommendations are presented.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-038.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-038i.pdfSeriesvi, 24p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1130IDForest carbon and local livelihoods: assessment of opportunities and policy recommendationsSmith, J.Scherr, S.J2002clean development mechanismprojectsforestscommunity involvementcommunity forestrypolicysocioeconomicssocial impactProjects implemented as part of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol will have the dual mandate of mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and contributing to sustainable development. Basic agreement on core elements was reached in 2001, including the decision to allow afforestation and reforestation projects. However, it is not yet clear what rules will address social concerns. Many types of projects could potentially contribute to local livelihoods and ecosystem restoration, as well as to carbon emission offsets, including those using natural forest regeneration, agroforests, improved forest fallows and agroforestry. Averted deforestation projects with multiple-use forestry, though not eligible in the first CDM period, could be reconsidered in the future. Such projects can be designed to rigorously meet CDM criteria for carbon impact, additionality, leakage and duration. If suitably targeted, they can be cost-effective for investors in terms of production costs. Some, however, may have higher transaction costs. Proactive efforts are needed to enable community-based CDM forestry projects and local land uses to compete effectively in carbon trading markets with projects managed by large-scale operators. The CDM should require mandatory social impact assessments, harmonise the CDM with social principles of other global conventions, promote measures to reduce transaction costs and explicitly include assisted natural regeneration and forest rehabilitation in the definition of afforestation and reforestation. Most developing countries will require policy action to establish the enabling conditions for forest carbon projects to contribute on a large scale to local livelihoods, integrate CDM projects within national development frameworks, attract investors, establish social criteria, secure local rights and promote support services for local people. Cost-effective project design requires attention to local participation, transparency, suitable compensation mechanisms, strategies to reduce transaction costs and risks and extend the scale of projects, and to enhance profitability of land uses.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-037.pdfSeries45p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1086IDHow to know more about forests?: supply and use of information for forest policyJanz, K.Persson, RCIFORBogor, Indonesia2002information needsinformation systemsforest resourcesforest policydata collectioninstitutionsdeveloping countriesThere are serious shortcomings in the supply and use of information needed for policy making in the forestry sectors of developing countries (and often also in developed countries). The main weakness is the failure to connect supply to demand. Much information has been gathered not because it was needed but because donors were willing to fund inventories, on traditional lines, that were vaguely thought to be potentially useful. Information is usually inadequate on topics such as actual removals of wood and other products, or the usefulness of the forests, especially to the local people. Not enough provision is made for continuous inventories to the necessarily high standards that are needed to measure change. The way in which remote sensing has been used has often been heavily influenced by the facilities that are on offer, rather than the potential usefulness of the results. It is suggested, for example, that the resources would be better used on the assessment of changes in land use and forest cover than on elaborate cartography. A key proposal is to set up national &lsquo;Analysis Units&rsquo; that will collate and interpret available infor­mation, help users to define their needs, and make the link with suppliers, so that information gathering can be more driven by demand. Information at international level depends on what is available nationally, and therefore improve­ment should be sought mainly at national level.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-036.pdfSeries35p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1082IDModelling methods for policy analysis in Miombo woodlandsCIFORCIFORBogor, Indonesia2001programmingmodelswoodlandsutilizationpolicyplanninghouseholdsprivate sectordynamic modelsIt contains two articles: 1. Nhantumbo, I. and Kowero, G. A goal programming model for planning management of Miombo woodlans. 2. Sumaila, U.R., Angelsen, A. and Kowero, G. A system dynamics model for management of Miombo woodlandsThe miombo woodlands of eastern, central and southern Africa are some of the most extensive dry forests in Africa. They supply a myriad of products and services for local populations, governments and the private sector - the main stakeholders. Planning the management and use of the woodlands to meet the needs of the many and diverse stakeholders who often have conflicting interests in the woodlands continues to be a great challenge to national governments and other interested parties. This paper presents two modelling approaches, a systems dynamics model and a goal programming model, that have potential for use in planning woodland use and in analysing the implications of various policies on people and the woodlands.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-035.pdfSeries30p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1030IDA goal programming model for planning management of Miombo woodlandsNhantumbo, I.Kowero, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2001woodlandsforest managementplanningpolicymodelshouseholdsprivate sectormacroeconomicsagricultural sectorevaluationThis paper presents a methodology employed in reconciling demands of households, private sector, and government on miombo woodlands of Southern Africa. A Weighted Goal Programming approach is presented for planning management and use of the woodlands as well as a framework for policy analysis. The approach is based on essentially two models, viz., household and private sector models, which are linked into a miombo woodlands model (MIOMBOGP). The MIOMBOGP provides a framework for evaluating the impact, on these two sectors and the woodlands, of some government macro-economic policies as well as some forestry and agricultural sector policies.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-035.pdfSeries15p.enCIFOR Head Quarter1031IDA system dynamics model for management of Miombo woodlandsSumaila, U.R.Angelsen, A.Kowero, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2001woodlandsforest managementplanningforest policydynamic modelsanalysissocial forestrysocial participationpartnershipsThe miombo woodlands of eastern, central and southern Africa are some of the most extensive dry forests in Africa. They supply a myriad of products and services for local populations, governments and the private sector, the main stakeholders. Planning the management and use of the woodlands by many and diverse stakeholders who often have conflicting interests in the woodlands continues to be a great challenge to national governments and other interested parties. This paper presents a system dynamic model, MIOMBOSIM, which has potential for facilitating planning developments in the woodlands in ways which reconcile the aspirations of the three major stakeholders. The model holds potential for analysing various policy implications on people and the woodlands, as well as the desirability of various partnership arrangements for managing and using the woodland resources.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-035.pdfSeries17-30enCIFOR Head Quarter1032IDAn international comparison of cases of forest product development: overview, description and data requirementsBelcher, B.Ruiz Perez, MCIFORBogor, Indonesia2001http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/Wp-23.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter960IDThe invisible wand: adaptive co-management as an emergent strategy in complex bio-economic systemRuitenbeek, J.Cartier, CCIFORBogor, Indonesia2001forest managementadaptationsystemspolicymodelseconomic analysisThis paper provides an economic perspective on concepts related to adaptive co-management (ACM). The discussion is cast within a formal generalised complex system (CS) framework. The authors explicitly explore the hypothesis of whether ACM can be regarded as an emergent strategy under specific conditions. The conditions draw a corollary from the well-known work of Adam Smith that describes 'self interest' as a forcing factor (the 'invisible hand) that lead to stability and efficiency in economic systems. The specific hypothesis is meant as an exploratory tool that permits the authors: (i) to develop in greater detail a formal definition of the elements of the system within a CS framework; (ii) to provide economic perspectives on the literature relating to ACM; (iii) to derive some related empirical lessons from that literature; (iv) to demonstrate the limitations of existing economic modelling and analytical constructs for addressing ACM issues; (v) to identify potential policy linkages; and (vi) to elaborate research implications.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-034.pdfSeries47p.enCIFOR Head Quarter957IDForestry, poverty and aidArnold, J.E.MCIFORBogor, Indonesia2001agroforestrypovertyforestrydevelopment aidparticipationforest managementcommunity forestryVery large numbers of the rural poor derive some part of their livelihood inputs from forest resources, in different ways and to different extents. For many the dependence on forests is a function of their poverty, because they lack better alternatives. Helping meet their subsistence and survival needs can therefore be as important a role for forestry aid as supporting those able to increase their incomes through forest activities, but needs to avoid encouraging forms of forest dependence that could lock the very poor into continued poverty. Programmes to devolve forest use and management rights to local users have often improves access by the poor, but their impact has frequently been limited by government failures to transfer full or effective rights and by regulations and actions that restrict access by small producers to formal sector markets for forest products. This has taken the form of the state retaining rights to timber and other valuable components of the resource, of restrictions in favour of biodiversity conservation, of governments being unable in a period of declining budgets for forestry to period necessary support, and of forest departments and corporations intervening as trade intermediaries and competing producers. In addition, weaknesses in the institutional arrangements for devolved forest management and control have often resulted in transfers favouring the less poor, or outside users. Assistance to smallholder tree growing and commercial activities has also often failed to take sufficient account of the poorer amongst those being targeted. The paper suggests a number of ways in which forestry aid might address some of these issues and become more effectively poverty oriented.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-033.pdfSeries17p.enCIFOR Head Quarter884ID0854-9818Site management and productivity in tropical forest plantationsTiarks, A.Nambiar, E.K.S.Cossalter, C1998forest managementforest plantationsexperimental designmethodologypartnershipsplanningproductivityresearch projectsTropical countries are expanding plantation forestry to develop sustainable wood production systems. Much of this is based on short rotations of exotic species. These systems require large capital investments, represent intensive land use and increase the demands on the soil. To develop options for maintaining or increasing productivity, a partner-project was initiated by Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) with three objectives: 1) evaluate the impact of soil and site management practices on the productivity of successive rotations of plantations, 2) develop management options for maintaining or increasing productivity and 3) where it is appropriate strengthen local institutional capacity to respond to new problems and opportunities. The project focuses on the critical inter-rotational phase of management: harvesting, site preparation, and early stand developement. A core set of treatments selected to create a range of impacts on organic matter and nutrients supply intensities will be included at all locations. Optional treatments tailored to each site will be added as required by local management, and soil and stand considerations. Each location will carry out a self-contained experiment that will produce scientifically valid results on its own merit. All experiments are networked to integrate the information so underlying processes can be understood and options for science based management developed. All sites are expected to be valuable reference sites for long-term investigations.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-16.pdfSeries11p.enCIFOR Head Quarter407IDLes Approches participatives dans la gestion des ecosystemes forestiers d'Afrique Centrale: revue des initiatives existantesNguinguiri, J.CCIFORBogor, Indonesia1999forest managementparticipationreviewscommunity forestryforestry lawplanningdevelopmentresearchcommunicationcommunity involvementDevelopments in the international institutional context and in the capacity of governments to ensure sustainable forest management in Central Africa lead to new approaches to participatory management being explored. The author reviews current initiatives in this field in Congo Brazzaville, Gabon, Cameroon, Central African Republic and Equatorial Guinea. Such initiatives are still in an experimental stage and aim at answering issues linked with conventional forest management as well as meeting prerequisites imposed by international organisations for granting aid to development. These new approaches apply to four main areas: (1) Planning in the form of Forest Action Plans (TFAP/NFAP) and Environmental Management or Action Plans (EMP/EAP). Only those being in a development process take into account the participatory approach. (2) Protected areas. The current trend, especially at regional level (ECOFAC), is to substitute involvement of local populations in sustainable resource management for protection of forest islands. (3) Community forests. Cameroon has changed its legislation and is in an experimental stage. Congo and Gabon are engaged in reforming their laws. And (4) Management for timber production. Participation of local people is recommended, however the mode of implementation is not clearly defined. Research is involved at different levels: function of advice and analysis, definition of operational modes of implementation, and social experimentation. The author describes analysis patterns (theory of land control, modes of appropriation), and the main research focuses. Most important is communication, using approaches such as GRAAP (Research Group in Support to Self-Promotion) and MARP (Active Method of Participatory Research). Objectives are listening, informing and awareness-raising. The economic alternatives approach, based on a combination of incentives and disincentives, is increasingly used, as well as institutional alternatives approach. The success of a co-management process is dependent on taking into account all categories of actors involved in decision-making.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-23.pdfSeries24p.frCIFOR Head Quarter630IDEstimating sustainable timber production from tropical forestsVanclay, J.K1996sustainabilitytimberstropical forestsproductionNatural forests in the humid tropics differ from temperate and plantation forests in several ways: there may be many tree species; many of these may occur infrequently; there may be a large range of tree sizes and shapes present; tree ages may be unknown and indeterminate; and despite the luxuriant appearance some rainforests, growth rates may be relatively low. This has many implications for timber harvesting and yield estimation and means that most of the estimation techniques devised for even-aged single-species forests cannot be used. A timber harvest represents the culmination of many years of growth, even in "fast growing" plantations. Thus, unlike the farmer of annual crops, the forest manager must consider the distribution of the harvest over time. Several "rules-of-thumb" for estimating the annual allowable cut are examined, with special emphasis given to the selection of the cutting cycle, to growth and harvesting models, and to inventory and monitoring systems. Strengths and weaknesses of cutting cycle analysis are discussed, and are contrasted with the more sophisticated yield scheduling systems. Tools, techniques and information sources for estimating timber yields are reviewed. Yield calculations should make full use of existing information, including data from old surveys and casual inspections. Remote sensing and geographic information systems offer several interesting possibilities for yield estimation, particularly for sensitivity testing, but are not without limitations. A check list and extensive references are given.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-11.pdfSeries17p.enCIFOR Head Quarter71IDHigh quality planting stock - has research made a difference?Ng, F.S.PCIFORBogor, Indonesia1996planting stockresearchThirty years of research on planting stock in Malaysia, coveting the period of a FAO/UNDP pine project, an enrichment planting effort with dipterocarps in natural forest and a compensantory plantation project with fast growing trees, had minimal effect on the course of events. The pine project and the enrichment planting project were both given up after about 75 years of effort and the compensatory plantation project is likely to end in the same way. The interface between research and application was more complicated than what managers and scientists were prepared for and the benefit of research were seldom realized.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-08n.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter55MYLaju dan penyebab deforestasi di Indonesia: penelaahan kerancuan dan penyelesaiannyaSunderlin, W.D.Resosudarmo, I.A.PCIFORBogor, Indonesia1997deforestationcausesalso available in EnglishThere have been several major research efforts on the rate and causes of Indonesia's deforestation in recent years and much associated literature, but there is still no consensus in the research community on these issues. This paper reviews the areas of uncertainty and confusion, and proposes questions that must be answered to get a better grasp of the subject. Among the key questions are: (1) How are we to define "forest", "deforestation" and "agency" in the context of Indonesia?; (2) What are the socio-economic characteristics and land-use practices of the various agents that have been lumped under the term "shifting cultivation"?; (3) Is the relationship between increasing population density and loss of forest cover causal or incidental?; (4) Why do some concessionaires appear to manage their sites relatively well, while many others do not?; (5) What have been the net forest cover effects of macro-economic restructuring and changes of commodity prices since the early 1980s? Guidelines are proposed for improved research on the rate and causes of forest cover change. The paper closes noting the need to rise above a tendency to seek mono-causal explanations. Cogent explanations will necessarily be complex, since the causes reside in long-standing and broad socio-economic forces. (OP-09)http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-09I.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-09n.pdfSeriesidCIFOR Head Quarter57IDReport on Discussion Forum on Information Services in the Asia-Pacific and AGRIS/CARIS in the 21st Century - An Asia-Pacific Regional ConsultationIbach, M.Byron, Y.CIFORBogor, Indonesia1997information servicesconferencesThe information available to researchers in today&rsquo;s world and the technology to access and utilise it is expanding rapidly. Unfortunately, most forestry and forestry research organisations in the Asia-Pacific region neither have access to nor can utilise effectively the vast amount of existing information for decision making. A number of organisations in the region share common objectives to develop capacity in the forestry research sector. To this end, representatives of the ASEAN Forest Tree Seed Centre (AFTSC) Project, ASEAN Institute of Forest Management (AIFM), Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), International Development Research Council (IDRC) and CAB International (CABI), and the Forestry Research Support Programme for Asia and the P acific (FORSPA) proposed solutions through collaborative activities. This report is the proceedings of the discussion forum on Information Services in the Asia-Pacific held at Bogor, Indonesia, from October 30 to 1 November 1996. The list of perceived needs generated by a preliminary survey guided the deliberations of the forum. Participants identified priority goals, action plans for their achievement and responsible agents/ agencies, expected time frames and likely costs. The Integrated Information System for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology (AGRIS) and the Current Agricultural Research Information System (CARIS) are part of the FAO&rsquo;s larger network providing an extensive, worldwide database of information on research in agriculture and related issues. To address the issue of AGRIS/CARIS in the 21st century, an Asia-Pacific Regional Consultation was held in conjunction with the discussion forum. This report documents the discussions designed to enhance cooperative activities and develop new approaches to improve the coverage of forestry literature in AGRIS and for forestry research information in CARIS among the countries in the Asia-Pacific region; as well as review new developments in information technology and their impacts on information providers and users. A detailed, independent review was recommended to evaluate AGRIS and CARIS, and their future directions in the 21st century with special attention to the coverage of forestry informationhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-10.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter58IDTechnologies for sustainable forest management: challenges for the 21st century. Commonwealth Forestry Congress, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, May 1997Sayer, J.A.Vanclay, J.K.Byron, R.NCIFORBogor, Indonesia1997technologysustainabilityforest managementTechnology will help to address the challenges for sustainable forestry in the 21st century. Some of the challenges will include the shift of production from native forest to plantations in areas of comparative advantage, more efficient processing delinking end-use products from raw wood characteristics, increased demand, better information technologies to support decision makers, and more options for conserving biodiversity. Definitions of sustainability will vary in time and space as society's expectations and aspirations change, so there can be no "silver bullet" to ensure sustainability. However, progress may be facilitated with a systematic approach to forest management embracing the usual planning cycle: formulation of objectives, preparation of a st rategy, planning, implementing, monitoring, and reappraisal. This requires a good understanding of each particular situation. Managers need good resource assessment and decision support systems; they must foster stakeholder participation in decisions, costs and benefits; and ensure effective procedures to resolve conflicts. Within an appropriate system, technical advances such as better machines and new implements may help to make a difference, but will not in themselves ensure sustainability. The important technologies for sustainable forestry are those that foster better communication between stakeholders and allow informed decisions spanning scales from the gene to the ecosystem. This remains an important challenge for forest managers in their search for sustainability.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-12.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter60IDA generic plant functional attribute set and grammar for vegetation description and analysisGillison, A.N.Carpenter, G1995vegetationdescriptionsanalysisConventional descriptive methods rarely convey the behavioural information needed to conserve and manage the world's vegetation. Such information may be derived from a generic set of plant functional attributes (PFAs). A grammar provides a syntactic rule base for generating and comparing coherent models of individual plant behaviour based on PFA combinations rather than discrete attributes. The method facilitates rapid and uniform assessment of plant response to environmental change at varying spatial scales regardless of species.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-03n.pdfSeries12p.enCIFOR Head Quarter63IDA review of tropical forestry and agroforestry problem areas and policy research needs and the planned response of the CGIAR systemSpears, J.Oram, P.Byron, R.N.Scherr, S.J.Izac., A.M1995tropical forestsagroforestrypolicyresearchCGIARreviewsThe idea of holding an international workshop on priorities for forestry/agroforestry policy research stemmed from discussions among a number of concerned scientists, some of whom (Hans Gregersen, Peter Oram, John Spears) had been involved in TAC, CGIAR, IUFRO, and other discussions on international research needs for the forestry sector, the potential role of the CGIAR and what IFPRI's contribution might be within this larger framework. IUFRO and USAID offered to fund such a workshop, and it was agreed to hold it in Washington with IFPRI as the operational focus and host. A key recommendation of this workshop was to follow up with similar workshops in each of the major geographical regions where tropical forestry is important, and IFPRI was asked to pursue this. The aim was to delineate more specifically the problems and priority areas for research, and to identify those researchable issues common to several countries, the results of which would have broad applicability; as well as where international action might be needed when problems transcended national boundaries or presented difficult methodological challenges. IFPRI agreed to take on this task, and Peter Oram, who had the primary responsibility for organizing the international workshop, was designated by IFPRI as task manager. John Spears and Hans Gregersen played an important advisory role, and John participated in the Asian and African workshops. Sara Scherr, who had been present at the international workshop and who joined IFPRI in 1991, participated in the Asian, African, and Latin American Workshops; Manuel Paveri of FAO also participated in the Asian, African, and Latin American workshops and provided a valuable link with FAO's Forest Policy Program. Marc de Montalambert, Director, Forest Policy and Planning Division in FAO, also attended the International and Asian workshops, and FAO was the lead agency managing the joint FAO/IFPRI Asian workshop in Bangkok. Ronnie de Camino was the main partner in the Latin American initiative. Peter Oram played the leading role in raising funds, organising all of the workshops jointly with IFPRI's partners in Asia (FAO), Africa (ICRAF), and Latin America (IICA), running the three regional meetings, and writing the reports. He, John Spears, Sara Scherr and Ann-Marie Izac participated in the Bogor workshop and contributed to the draft report. Neil Byron convened and organised this last meeting and also attended the Washington and Asian workshops.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-05n.pdfSeries42p.enCIFOR Head Quarter65IDWho counts most in sustainable forest management?Colfer, C.J.P1995forest managementsustainabilityThis paper proposes a method for identifying and defining the most significant actors in sustain- able forest management. A rationale for the importance of differentiating among various forest stakeholders is first provided. Significant stakeholders identified in forest management units in Kalimantan, Côte d'Ivoire, and the USA. are described. These descriptions are followed by a discussion of six important dimensions along which groups of people vary in their relations with the forest (proximity, pre-existing rights, dependency, indigenous knowledge, culture/forest integration, and power deficits). Finally, a simple scoring technique is proposed and demonstrated for the three contexts described earlier.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-07.pdfSeries16p.enCIFOR Head Quarter67IDPrinciples, criteria and indicators: applying Ockham&rsquo;s Razor to the people-forestry linkColfer, C.J.P.Prabhu, R.Wollenberg, E1995criteriaindicatorspeopleforestrylinkageThis concept paper addresses those elements in the people-forest interface which we perceive as critical to sustainable forest management, based on our own training and experience, as well as two field tests of the conceptual framework (in Kalimantan and Côte d'Ivoire ). Initially, we define our use of important terms, like sustainability, well being/needs, and people; and make clear some of our assumptions. We briefly allude to four pertinent conceptual and policy issues, including the role of people in relation to the forest; the significance of maintaining cultural diversity; the relationships among cultural integrity, culture change, and stakeholder participation; and finally, policy issues pertaining to land use, population, and people's participation. The body of the paper discusses two principles, each with three associated criteria. An appendix lists principles, criteria, indicators and verifiers found useful in our field tests. We conclude briefly by describing future research plans, focused on refining our definitions of stakeholders, testing the importance of inter- generational access to resources and people's participation in sustainable forest management, and testing the applicability of such criteria and indicators for community forestry contexts.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-08.pdfSeries16p.enCIFOR Head Quarter68IDCIFOR&rsquo;s research programme on conservation of tropical forest genetic resourcesBoyle, T.J.B1996genetic resourcestropical forestsnature conservationCIFORresearch projectsThe research programme described is intended to comprehensively answer key questions relating to in situ conservation of genetic resources. Outputs will be in the form of models of how landscape processes affect genetic level processes, and in the form of management prescriptions or policy options. In the case of research on tools and methodologies, outputs will obviously be improved methods for assessment of genetic diversity. There are strong links to various elements of CIFOR's research agenda. The links to socio-economic research of CIFOR's Policy and Social Science scientists are obvious and have been emphasised throughout. In addition, there are links to the Forest Ecosystem Management initiative under the Natural Forest Management Division, especially to the activities dealing with measurement of biodiversity and impacts of human activity on biodiversity, and to various activities in the Research Support Division. These include efforts to model the human-forest interface, and the development of GIS technology.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-09.pdfSeries26p.enCIFOR Head Quarter69IDAssessing "participation" in forest management: workable methods and unworkable assumptionsColfer, C. J. P.Wadley, R.L1996assessmentparticipationforest managementThis paper reports the results of a pre-test in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, of four methods designed to assess the level and nature of participation by local people in forest management quickly and easily. Two of the methods - the "Iterative Continuum Method" (ICM) and the participatory card sorting method - were deemed helpful.One method, the communication network analysis, was discarded in its current form.The final method, the researcher guide on the functions of participation, was felt in need of revision. Although the hypothesised firnctions of participation are not wrong, in our opinion, they reflect a way of looking at forest management which, we concluded, needs rethinking.In our discussion of the change needed we make use of Jordan's concept of "authoritative knowledge" and "social" or "cultural capital" (Berkes and Folke 1994; Ostrom 1994).We also suggest substituting "rights and obligations to manage the forest co-operatively " for "participation"in places like Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve (DSWR), where sustainable forest management is being assessed. Finally we conclude that, given the dynamism and complexity that characterise natural forests and their inhabitants, co-operation among all stakeholders in an ongoing dialogue is probably the only way that sustainable forest management can in fact occur.We urge researchers to continue the search for simple, inexpensive and reliable tools for assessing the issue we have called "participation in forest management."http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-12.pdfSeries33p.enCIFOR Head Quarter72IDAssessing people's perceptions of forests in Danau Sentarum Wildlife reserveColfer, C. J. P.Woelfer, J.Wadley, R.L.Harwell, E1996assessmentpeopleforestswildlifereserved areasPrevious research identified three important issues of relevance to forest people's roles in sustain- able forest management which we address here: the presence of a Conservation ethics, a feeling of closeness to the forest, and a significant forest-culture link. In this paper we examine a method (the Galileo), recently pre-tested for this purpose in West Kalimantan, which we hope can help us to assess such issues quickly, reliably and in a quantitative manner amenable to use by would-be assessors of various educational and experiential levels. We describe the method, suggest improvements for future tests, and present some of our findings from West Kalimantan. We conclude with questions that emerged during our pre-test, and others that remain for subsequent research.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-13.pdfSeries23p.enCIFOR Head Quarter73IDRapid ecological assessment Kerinci Seblat National Park buffer zone: report on plant ecology.Gillison, A.N.Liswanti, N.Rachman, I.A1996national parksassessmentecologybiodiversitylogging effectsA Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) was undertaken in two logging concessions bounding the Kerinci Seblat National Park in Central Sumatra. The REA was implemented by WWF Indonesia and funded by the World Bank. CIFOR together with LIPI advised on survey method as part of a wider study involving biodiversity assessment in the Jambi Province. An international team investigated biodiversity pattern in vascular plant species and plant functional groups, insects (mainly butterflies, moths, dung beetles and carabids), herpetofauna (amphibians and reptiles), bats, rodents, large mammals and birds. Unusually restrictive logistics reduced the number of sites to approximately half that needed for a statistical analysis. Results indicate that while plant species and functional richness vary directly with elevation, fauna show a reverse trend. The paper comments on ways of improving logging practices to conserve biodiversity. New global levels of species and functional richness were recorded for several sites. Any future baseline study will require a wider sample of land cover types.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-14.pdfSeries107p.+ anexes, map.senCIFOR Head Quarter74IDManaging forests and improving the livelihoods of forest-dependent people: reflections on CIFOR&rsquo;s social science research in relation to its mandate for generalisable strategic researchVayda, A.P1997forest managementresearchresearch policylivelihoodsCIFOR has been actively engaged in field research in Indonesia focussing particularly on the role of forests and forest products in generating sustainable livelihoods for local users. Issues such as incentives and institutional structures for equitable and sustainable management systems have been highlighted in this research, which has been undertaken with the active co-operation of local NGOs. During Professor Vayda's residency in CIFOR as a Distinguished Visiting Scholar, he was requested to conduct a review of CIFOR's social science research, particularly the connections between this Project and CIFOR's other related research on Biodiversity and Non-timber Forest Products. In this review he has assessed the extent to which CIFOR should seek or expect to find "generalisable" research findings to such questions, and whether this particular set of activities was well-located and well-targeted to attain that objective. His report has led to some modification and refinement of this very important component of CIFOR's overall programme.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-16.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter76IDInter-generational access to resources: developing criteria and indicatorsColfer, C.J.P.Wadley, R.L.Harwell, E.Prabhu, R1997right of accessforest resourcescriteriaindicatorsThis paper makes use of data from a methodological pre-test conducted in and around Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Its purpose was to contribute to the development of principles, criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management (SFM). The particular topic investigated here is "inter-generational access to resources", an issue widely deemed important - and very difficult to assess - in sustainable forest management.The methods pre-tested are described, and earlier versions of the principles, criteria and indicators are re-evaluated, re-ordered and scored in a dual attempt: to develop simple, inexpensive and reliable assessment methods, and to contribute to our understanding of the causal links between inter-generational access to resources and sustainable forest managementhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-18.pdfSeries34p.enCIFOR Head Quarter78IDRepong Damar: Kajian tentang pengambilan keputusan dalam pengelolaan lahan hutan di Pesisir Krui, Lampung BaratLubis, Z1997decision makingforest managementhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-20.pdfSeries17p.idCIFOR Head Quarter80IDProduction and Standards for Chemical Non-Wood Forest Products in ChinaZhaobang, S1995productionnon-timber forest productsstandardsNon-wood forest products are an important part of the forestry industry in China, particularly in poor mountain and forest areas. This paper concentrates on the present situation of chemical uses for non-wood forest products in China. It outlines the status of traditional products such as rosin, turpentine, tannin extracts and shellac, as well as pharmaceutical and health products. More recent developments in extraction and processing are also discussed. The prospects for chemical non-wood forest product extraction and utilisation are explored in the local and international contexts as contributors to the overall welfare of the Chinese population.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-06.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter115CNReduced impact logging guidelines for lowland and hill dipterocarp forest in IndonesiaSist, P.Dykstra, D.P.Fimbel, RCIFORBogor, Indonesia1998logging effectsguidelinesDipterocarpaceaeforestsThis report describes Reduced-Impact Logging(RIL) which will be implemented in the lowland and hill dipterocarp forest of the Bulungan Model Forest project in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. It is anticipated that through the implementation and supervision of the RIL practices described in this document, the timber concession operators (INHUTANI II) can expect to: reduce disturbances to soil and residual vegetation by at least 50% in comparison with conventional logging operations where these guidelines are not applied; limit overall direct impacts to the forest <25%; conserve wildlife and other forest resources, including non timber forest products (NTFPs), threatened and endangered species, keystone plant resources, and water; diminish direct logging costs by at least 15%; and protect the long-term integrity and value of the permanent forest estatehttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/Op-15a.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/Op-15b.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/Op-15c.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter360IDUna de gato: fate and future of a Peruvian forest resourcede Jong, W.Melnyk, M.Lozano, L.A.Rosales, M.Garcia, M1999forest products industriesintellectual property rightslegal rightsmedicinal plantsnon-timber forest productspolicypropagationtradeUncariausesUncaria tomentosa and U. guíanensis have been important in traditional healing in many South American countries. These species contain some sixty active substances which are widely tested for possible medical treatments. U. tomentosa has been traded from Peru until it reached a peak export of 726 tonnes in 1996. Government agencies and private companies have dedicated considerable efforts in trying to enhance production and sales of these species. At the national level, there has been pressure put on the government to allow legislation to prohibit the sales of the raw material of these species to capture larger shares of benefits for the national economy. Initially false conservation arguments were used as there is sufficient evidence to argue that at current harvesting levels there is no threat to the two species. Regional government agencies have promoted the production of the two species without having a clear picture of future demand, allowing the possibility that much of the future production will not have any demand. Both actions may possibly negatively affect the benefits that accrue to local collectors or producers.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-22.pdfSeries15p.enCIFOR Head Quarter554PECapacity for forestry research in selected countries of West and Central AfricaSpilsbury, M.J.Kowero, G.S.Tchala-Abina, F1999cooperationdevelopment agenciesresearchresearch institutessustainabilitycapacitydiffusion of informationCote d'IvoireIn 1997/98 a survey of nine forestry institutions in the West and Central Africa countries of Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire, Cameroon, Gabon and Benin was conducted. The survey methodology utilises ten indicators of research capacity that facilitate comparisons across the survey sample. General trends relating to research capacity in the region are highlighted and include: insufficient collaborative research; poor linkages between research, education and development; inadequate flow of information and access to scientific literature; and a low level of sustainability for research programme support. While there is still a considerable need to invest in the development of human resources and physical infrastructure at the institutional level, governements and development assistance agencies should pay more attention to promoting efficiency and effectiveness of the 'supply' side of research systems (national and regional). There have been few consistent attempts to develop mechanisms to match research 'supply' to the real 'demands' in terms of providing solutions to the most pressing problemshttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-24.pdfSeries36p.enCIFOR Head Quarter593CMThe effect of Indonesia's economic crisis on small farmers and natural forest cover in the outer islandsSunderlin, W.D.Resosudarmo, I.A.P.Rianto, E.Angelsen, ACIFORBogor, Indonesia2000economic criseseffectsfarmersfarming systemsforestsincomeland clearanceliving conditionsvillagesAlso available in Indonesian entitled: Dampak krisis ekonomi Indonesia terhadap petani kecil dan tutupan hutan alam di luar JawaTwenty million people live in or near Indonesia' s natural forests. The country's humid tropical forests are primarily in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya. A devastating regional economic crisis that began in mid-1997 affected Indonesia more strongly than any other country in Asia. A random sample survey of 1050 households was conducted in six outer island provinces to understand the effects of the crisis on the well-being of forest villagers and on their agricultural and forest clearing practices. In particular, the study sought to understand diverging opportunities introduced by the drastic depreciation of the Indonesian rupiah against the U.S. dollar; producers of agro-export commodities could obtain an income windfall from higher market prices but increased costs of living could neutralise potential income gains. Key findings are: (1) two-thirds of the households were worse off and only one-fifth were better off during the crisis than in the year before the crisis; (2) this happened despite three-quarters of households having export commodity income; (3) clearing of forest land increased slightly in the first year and greatly in the second year of the crisis; (4) land was cleared increasingly for export tree crops in sedentary systems and less for food crops in swidden cultivation systems; and (5) those who perceived themselves as worse off or better off were more likely to have cleared land during the crisis, and to have cleared a larger area of land, than those who felt their well-being did not change significantly. Forest villagers perceived themselves as worse off during the crisis than before. Moreover, there is increased pressure on the forests despite increased sedentary farming during the crisis. Key policy lessons are: (1) farmers need assistance in diversifying their income sources to protect against possible future economic shocks; and (2) there should be greater awareness of how macroeconomic instability can lead to undesirable environmental consequences.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-28(E).pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-028(I).pdfSeries36p.enCIFOR Head Quarter623IDDampak krisis ekonomi Indonesia terhadap petani kecil dan tutupan hutan alam di luar JawaSunderlin, W.D.Resosudarmo, I.A.P.Rianto, E.Angelsen, ACIFORBogor, Indonesia2000economic criseseffectsfarmersfarming systemsforestsincomeland clearanceliving conditionsvillagesAlso available in English entitled:The effect of Indonesia's economic crisis on small farmers and natural forest cover in the outer islandsTwenty million people live in or near Indonesia' s natural forests. The country's humid tropical forests are primarily in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya. A devastating regional economic crisis that began in mid-1997 affected Indonesia more strongly than any other country in Asia. A random sample survey of 1050 households was conducted in six outer island provinces to understand the effects of the crisis on the well-being of forest villagers and on their agricultural and forest clearing practices. In particular, the study sought to understand diverging opportunities introduced by the drastic depreciation of the Indonesian rupiah against the U.S. dollar; producers of agro-export commodities could obtain an income windfall from higher market prices but increased costs of living could neutralise potential income gains. Key findings are: (1) two-thirds of the households were worse off and only one-fifth were better off during the crisis than in the year before the crisis; (2) this happened despite three-quarters of households having export commodity income; (3) clearing of forest land increased slightly in the first year and greatly in the second year of the crisis; (4) land was cleared increasingly for export tree crops in sedentary systems and less for food crops in swidden cultivation systems; and (5) those who perceived themselves as worse off or better off were more likely to have cleared land during the crisis, and to have cleared a larger area of land, than those who felt their well-being did not change significantly. Forest villagers perceived themselves as worse off during the crisis than before. Moreover, there is increased pressure on the forests despite increased sedentary farming during the crisis. Key policy lessons are: (1) farmers need assistance in diversifying their income sources to protect against possible future economic shocks; and (2) there should be greater awareness of how macroeconomic instability can lead to undesirable environmental consequences.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-028(I).pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-28(E).pdfSeries38p.idCIFOR Head Quarter624IDThe Hesitant boom: Indonesia's oil palm sub-sector in an era of economic crisis and political changeCasson, ACIFORBogor, Indonesia2000palm oilsoil palmseconomic crisesproductionplantationsland useforestspolicyPlanted oil palm areas increased 20-fold and crude palm oil (CPO) production had a 12% average annual increase from 1967-1997. This conferred important economic benefits but threatened Indonesia's natural forest cover. Large-scale plantations displaced local communities and social conflict resulted. Early in the economic crisis, it was expected the boom would continue, and be propelled by currency depreciation and lifting of foreign investment constraints. However, there was a slowdown in area expansion and CPO production. The government estimated that 177 197 ha of oil palm would be planted in 1999, 33% less than in 1997. CPO production declined to only 5 million t in 1998, 7% less than in 1997. Key reasons include: (1) the government's export tax policy; (2) reform policies targeting the oil palm sub-sector; (3) social unrest and consequent withholding of foreign investment; (4) changes to the CPO distribution system; (5) credit access difficulties; (6) changes to the state-owned plantation sector; (7) the 1997/98 drought and fires; (8) decline in the world price of crude palm oil; and (9) increased production costs. The Indonesian oil palm sub-sector is now poised to expand again. CPO production was expected to increase by 12% to 5.6 million t in 1999 due mainly to increased rainfall. Other factors will continue to stimulate plantation development: (1) lower interest rates; (2) regulatory changes that facilitate further oil palm development; (3) debt restructuring opportunities; (4) availability of land cleared in the drought and related forest fires; (5) predicted growing global demand for CPO; (6) government's reduction of the export tax; and (7) cooperation between Indonesian and Malaysian oil palm producers to push up palm oil prices. While most immediate expansion is likely to be in Sumatra, companies will seek concession areas in forest lands in Kalimantan, Irian Jaya and Sulawesi. Without fundamental changes to forest land allocations in Indonesia, expansion in the oil palm sub-sector will continue to reduce Indonesia's forest cover.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-029.pdfSeries50p.enCIFOR Head Quarter625IDThe underlying causes of forest declineContreras-Hermosilla, ACIFORBogor, Indonesia2000forest declinedeforestationdegraded forestsland useforest policygovernment policysocioeconomicsreviewsLoggers, miners and rural communities all exploit forests in unsustainable ways in search of profits and means of subsistence. They are the primary actors in forest decline and their immediate motivations are the direct causes of deforestation and degradation. However, these motivations are determined, through complex causation chains, by deeper and much more fundamental forces: the underlying causes of deforestation. Effective action against forest decline requires an understanding of these underlying causes and their distant impacts on forests. Underlying causes originate in some of the most basic features of society, such as the distribution of economic and political power, attitudes towards corruption, population growth, flaws in the market system and in seemingly unrelated government policies. They may originate in other countries and transmit their effects through trade and the operation of transnational corporations. Underlying causes are many and operate in numerous and variable combinations. Forest decline is a complex socio-economic, cultural and political event. Thus, it is a mistake to attribute forest decline to a simple cause-effect relationship or assume that a relationship will remain unaltered over time. A single force, such as agricultural intensification, may operate in diametrically opposite ways, depending of the context of other variables and circumstances prevailing in a particular situation. Accordingly, remedial measures need to be tailored to the very specific milieu in which they will be introduced. There are no simple solutions to this complex phenomenon.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-030.pdfSeries25p.enCIFOR Head Quarter626IDL'Impact de la crise economique sur les populations, les migrations et le couvert forestier du Sud-CamerounKemajou J.P.W.Sunderlin, W.DCIFORBogor, Indonesia1999economic crisesmigrationdeforestationpopulation growthfood Cropsplantation cropsforest resourcesgender relationslabourCette etude a ete realisee en 1997-98 par le CIFOR en collaboration avec les institutions et les chercheurs camerounais, grace a l'appui financier du DFID du Royaume-Uni. Son objectif general est de compendre les causes qui expliqueraient le taux de deforestation beaucoup plus elevependantla crise economique (qui commenca en 1986) par rapport a ala periode avant le debut de la crise. Le project de recherche a examine les effects de la crise sur les migrations, les systemes de cultures, la division sexuelle du travail et leur incidence sur le couvert forestier. Les travaux de Franqueville effectues en 1974-75 et publies en 1987 ont servi de reference pour les enquetes exhaustives menees aupres de 4.078 menages dans 38 villages, repartis dans les provinces du Centre et du Sud (et leurs marges) du Cameroun meridional forestier. Il se degage trois resultats principaux dont le premier est que le taux de croissance de la population est plus eleve pendant la crise comparativement a la decennie precedente. Deuxiemement, il y a eu un grand changement de la structure des productions agricoles, l'agriculture de plantations ayant chute au profit de l'agriculture vivriere. Troisiemement, l'augmentation de la production de la production des cultures vivrieres a ete en partie favorisee par les changements de la division sexuelle du travail essentiellement intervenus au niveau des hommes. Cette etude conclut que les phenomenes macro economiques peuvent affecter les dynamiques socio economiques et l'utilisation des ressources naturelles d'une maniere imprevue et dans certains cas - avec des consequences indesirables. Ces nouvelles tendances, qui ont eu une influence negative sur le couvert forsetier, devraint etre prises en consideration par les decideurs en vue d'une meilleure gestion des ressources forestieres et de l'amelioration des conditions de vie des populations.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-25.pdfSeries23p.frCIFOR Head Quarter627IDThe Impact of sectoral development on natural forest conversion and degradation: the case of timber and tree crop plantations in IndonesiaKartodihardjo, H.Supriono, ACIFORBogor, Indonesia2000plantation cropsland useforestsconversionpolicyprivate sectoroil palmsconcessionsconflictlegal rightsforest plantationslocal populationAlso available in Indonesian entitled Dampak pembangunan sektoral terhadap konversi dan degradasi hutan alami: kasus pembangunan HTI dan perkebunan di IndonesiaThis paper examines the conversion of Indonesia&rsquo;s natural forests to timber and tree crop plantations, notably oil palm. The principal aims are to understand the impact of this process on natural forest and on forest-dwelling people, and to establish whether past and present policies governing this process are meeting their objectives. The key findings of the study are: (1) timber plantation development policies legitimate the degradation of natural forests; (2) subsidies are ultimately unnecessary for the development of timber plantations; (3) tree crop plantation developers request more land than they need to obtain added profits from the timber on lands to be cleared; (4) overlapping and chaotic forest land use classification systems work to the benefit of private plantation developers at the expense of the rights and livelihoods of forest-dwelling people; and (5) resolution of these problems is hampered by the persistence of the government&rsquo;s top-down approach and non-recognition of traditional land use rights. It is recommend that: remaining natural forests on conversion forest lands be reclassified as permanent forests; plantation development take place only on unproductive production forest lands; and forest land use redistribution be devolved to the local level.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-26e.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-26i.pdfSeries14p.enCIFOR Head Quarter628IDL'Impact de la crise economique sur les systemes agricoles et la changement du couvert forestier dans la zone forestiere humide du CamerounBikie, H.Ndoye, O.Sunderlin, W.DCIFORBogor, Indonesia2000non-timber forest productstropical forestseconomic crisesagricultural landcash cropscocoacoffeedeforestationgender relationswomenhousehold surveysrural economyA sample survey of 648 households was conducted in 54 villages in the humid forest zone of Cameroon to understand the effect of the economic crisis (dating from 1986) and the 1994 currency devaluation on the practices of small farmers, and the effect of these practices on forest cover change. Four hypotheses were tested concerning: the balance between plantation crop and food crop production; the degree of market-orientation of food crop production; the gender division of labour; and the degree of dependence on non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Some key findings are: (1) the area of cocoa production has stagnated while that of coffee, plantain, and other food crops has tended to increase; (2) food crop production is now more market-oriented; (3) men are now far more involved in food crop production than in the past; (4) more households now exploit NTFPs than before but it remains a small source of income; and (5) in connection with these changes, there has been an overall increase in the rate of forest clearing by small farmers. The study concludes that economic crises and macroeconomic policies can have unexpected and powerful effects on land use and forest practices. Future policies aimed at improving forest conservation and management must take account of this fact.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-27.pdfSeries16p.frCIFOR Head Quarter629CMWild logging: the rise and fall of logging networks and biodiversity conservation projects on Sumatra&rsquo;s rainforest frontierMcCarthy, J.FCIFORBogor, Indonesia2000forestryinstitutionsinterventionillicit logginglocal governmentnature conservationcustomary lawsocioeconomicschangeDuring 1999-2000, the illegal and unregulated logging of Indonesia&rsquo;s forests became the focus of critical attention. It has been estimated that logging outside the State legal regime produces approximately half of the total timber production from Indonesia&rsquo;s forests. In 2000, as Indonesia&rsquo;s forests continued to rapidly recede, the problem had become so critical that, without serious changes, the World Bank and other foreign donors considered withdrawing entirely from forestry sector projects in Indonesia. While on a national scale the extent of the problem is now understood, insufficient attention has been paid to how this &lsquo;informal sector&rsquo; operates at the district level. The paper is based on research carried out in the district of South Aceh during 1996-1999, before and during the crisis that marked the end of the Suharto era. By considering the emergence of logging networks in this district, this paper examines the institutional arrangements associated with this phenomenon, explores how logging networks emerge, how they operate, and how they respond to economic and political changes as well as interventions by outside conservation agencies. Webs of political, economic and social exchanges have emerged around illegal logging, constituting institutionalised sets of relationships that operate in ways antithetical to State legal norms. Extra-legal logging generates revenue for local clientele networks and the district budget and offers impoverished villagers viable survival strategies, but threatens the ecological future of Indonesia&rsquo;s once vast forests. By considering the changes that most affected logging networks over this period, the paper concludes by discussing the conditions necessary for successful project interventions.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-31.pdfSeries26p.enCIFOR Head Quarter654CMSituating Zimbabwe's natural resource governance systems in historyMandondo, A2000administrationdecentralizationforestsgovernment policynatural resourcesresource managementpeasantrycopy availableThis paper reviews natural resource governance in Zimbabwe&rsquo;s peasant sector from colonial to post-colonial times. Governance is considered within the framework of power, process and practice and how these shaped peasant access, control and use of natural resources. Colonial natural resource governance systems resulted in over-centralisation because they were crafted in the context of conquest and subjugation. Over the years, state visions of appropriate management and use of resources have largely been extended to the African peasant sector through a centrally-directed structure and process. However, state control over the use and management of resources among the peasantry was and is largely ineffectual because the state lacks the resources and capacity to enforce such controls. Much of the colonial legislation was inherited piecemeal into post-colonial times, and amendments to date have largely deracialised the colonial acts and policies without democratising them. Pioneering efforts at decentralizing entrustments over use and management of resources to the peasant communities have largely resulted in recentralisation at the district level, where such efforts are still practiced in the trickle-down mode. This is in part because the policy thrust seeking to empower the peasant communities is supply-led, and thus defined according to the terms and processes of external agents, including funders and central governments and their functionaries. The study argues that supply-led decentralisation needs to be complemented by demand-driven decentralisation.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-32.pdfSeries20p.enCIFOR Head Quarter716ZWBosques secundarios como recurso para el desarrollo rural y la conservacion ambiental en los tr picos de America LatinaSmith, J.Sabogal, C.de Jong, W.Kaimowitz, DCIFORBogor, Indonesia1997conservationhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-13.pdfSeriesesCIFOR Head Quarter2557ZW0854-9818Dampak pembangunan sektoral terhadap konversi dan degradasi hutan alam: kasus pembangunan HTI dan perkebunan di IndonesiaKartodihardjo, H.Supriono, ACIFORBogor, Indonesia2000developmentconversionforeststimbersplantationsoil palmsdegraded forestsforest products industriesforest policyland uselegal rightslocal populationAlso available in English entitled The impact of sectoral development on natural forest conversion and degradation: the case of timber and tree crop plantationThis paper examines the conversion of Indonesia&rsquo;s natural forests to timber and tree crop plantations, notably oil palm. The principal aims are to understand the impact of this process on natural forest and on forest-dwelling people, and to establish whether past and present policies governing this process are meeting their objectives. The key findings of the study are: (1) timber plantation development policies legitimate the degradation of natural forests; (2) subsidies are ultimately unnecessary for the development of timber plantations; (3) tree crop plantation developers request more land than they need to obtain added profits from the timber on lands to be cleared; (4) overlapping and chaotic forest land use classification systems work to the benefit of private plantation developers at the expense of the rights and livelihoods of forest-dwelling people; and (5) resolution of these problems is hampered by the persistence of the government&rsquo;s top-down approach and non-recognition of traditional land use rights. It is recommend that: remaining natural forests on conversion forest lands be reclassified as permanent forests; plantation development take place only on unproductive production forest lands; and forest land use redistribution be devolved to the local level.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-26i.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-26e.pdfSeries14p.idCIFOR Head Quarter640IDRates and causes of deforestation in Indonesia: towards a resolution of the ambiguitiesSunderlin, W.D.Resosudarmo. I.A.PCIFORBogor, Indonesia1996deforestationcausesalso available in IndonesianThere have been several major research efforts on the rate and causes of Indonesia's deforestation in recent years and much associated literature, but there is still no consensus in the research community on these issues. This paper reviews the areas of uncertainty and confusion, and proposes questions that must be answered to get a better grasp of the subject. Among the key questions are: (1) How are we to define "forest", "deforestation" and "agency&rdquo; in the context of Indonesia? (2) What are the socio-economic characteristics and land-use practices of the various agents that have been lumped under the term "shifting cultivation" ? (3) Is the relationship between increasing population density and loss of forest cover causal or incidental? (4) Why do some concessionaires appear to manage their sites relatively well, while many others do not? (5) What have been the net forest cover effects of macro-economic restructuring and changes of commodity prices since the early 1980s? Guidelines are proposedfor improved research on the rate and causes of forest cover change. The paper closes noting the need to rise above a tendency to seek mono-causal explanations.Cogent explanations will necessarily be complex, since the causes reside in long-standing and broad socio-economic forces.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-09n.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-09I.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter56IDGanaderia, bosques latifoliados y Ley de modernización agricola en Honduras: El caso de OlanchoSunderlin, W.D.Rodriguez, J.A1996Los bosques latifoliados de Honduras, entre los más extensos de Centroamérica, han sido objeto de una rápida deforestación. Uno de los principales factores en este proceso ha sido el desarrollo de la ganadería. Las políticas de ajuste estructural emitidas en 1992 han sido orientadas a resolver los graves problemas económicos del país. Los autores del plan de ajuste han supuesto que las mismas políticas ayudarían a proteger la base de los recursos naturales del país, incluyendo sus bosques. Las investigaciones de campo realizadas entre agosto y noviembre de 1994 buscaron conocer los efectos de la nueva Ley de Modernización Agrícola (LMA) sobre la actividad ganadera y el manejo del bosque latifoliado en el oriente de Honduras. Se concluye que la actividad ganadera posiblemente se ha beneficiado de las nuevas políticas, lo cual a&oelig;n necesita comprobarse. También se desprende que la capacidad del estado para manejar y conservar el bosque ha disminuido. Entre las recomendaciones del informe están: (1) fortalecer la capacidad del Estado para aplicar las leyes que ayudan a la protección del bosque latifoliado; (2) revisar las disposiciones de la Ley de Modernización Agrícola, incluyendo disposiciones que ayuden específicamente al desarrollo del bosque latifoliado; (3) aunar esfuerzos para tratar de armonizar las políticas entre los diferentes sectores económicos; (4) actualizar el catastro nacional e implementar un plan nacional de uso de la tierra; y, (5) fortalecer el apoyo gubernamental al manejo forestal comunitario. Quedan tres cuestiones pendientes: (1) ¿Podría la intensificación de la ganadería contribuir a disminuir la deforestación? (2) ¿Podría la paralización en la construcción de carreteras en las cercanías de las áreas boscosas, disminuir la tasa de deforestación? y (3) ¿En qué grado se reduciría la deforestación a través de la atención exclusiva al sector ganadero. http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-07S.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-07.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter53IDForestry research within the Consultative Group on International Agricultural ResearchSayer, J.A1994forestryresearchCGIARhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-01n.pdfSeries8p.enCIFOR Head Quarter48IDSocial and economical aspects of Miombo woodland management in Southern Africa: options and opportunities for researchDewees, P. A1994socioeconomicswoodlandsforest managementFive themes are identified for social, economic and policy research relating to miombo woodland management in southern Africa. They are: (1) patterns of local institutional change; (2) household use of woodland products; (3) markets for woodland products; (4) longer term dimensions to woodland use and exploitation and (5) policy and legislation. These themes are by no means definitive or exhaustive, but are described here as a means of focusing on the scope of future research, and as a basis for identifying priorities.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-02n.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter49IDEnvironment, development and poverty: a report of the international workshop on India&rsquo;s forest management and ecological revivalLele, U.Mitra, K.Kaul, O.N1995environmentdevelopmentpovertyforest managementIndia is vast, diverse and complex, in its environments and in environment-society relations. These relationships, and government policies which influence or control them, are the subject of very significant reforms currently occurring in India. At the most fundamental level, this report asks "Who is to protect, manage and regenerate India&rsquo;s forests, where and for what, and what resources or support does each agent need to fulfil the mandate efficiently and equitably?" The conventional forestry systems have been under scrutiny. "Forestry" no longer means just industrial timber production by the Government, on government-owned lands. Other priority objectives (e.g. ecological and social sustainability) and other participants (farmers, communities, NGOs and industries) have emerged, and new modes of organisation are being explored and tested, such as Joint Forest Management. Is there a contradiction between "new goals and directions, such as JFM", but the old rules, structures and personnel? Is it possible to achieve the opposite goal with virtually the same apparatus as the 1950s? Or has it really beenreformed? What further reforms and support (e.g. education, research, extension and investment funds) are required?http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-03n.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter50IDScience and international nature conservationSayer, J.A1995knowledgenature conservationInternational nature conservation programs were originally driven by field biologists. As environment has assumed increasing prominence on the international political agenda, the role of biologists has been marginalised. International programs now have ambitious targets set by politicians and aspire to save the world.There is a need to balance these global environmental initiatives with a set of shorter-term practical actions to maximise biodiversity conservation. Biological scientists can cooperate with other natural resource specialists and social scientists in defining more targeted cost-effective nature conservation programs. A case is made for the Prince Bernhard Chair at the University of UTRECHT to focus on this interface between science and conservation practices.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-04n.pdfSeries14p.enCIFOR Head Quarter51IDReport on the workshop on barriers to the application of forestry research resultsNair, C.T.SEnters, T.Payne, BCIFORBogor, Indonesia1995forestryresearchconstraintsconferencesDespite the increase in forestry research investment, the scientific base of forestry field practices remain weak, primarily due to the barriers to the application of research results. While barriers become visible at the application stage, their origin could be traced to all the preceding stages, including problem identification, research process and communication and extension. Mechanisms for identification of researchable problems, especially through the involvement of users are at best weak. The problem is further aggravated due to compartmentalized research, failure to incorporate local technical know-how and weaknesses in research management including inappropriate evaluation systems. A substantial proportion of research results are not communicated to potential users, but directed at other researchers. Even when relevant results are made available, they may remain unutilized as potential adopters may have objectives not taken into account while designing research. Also forestry services geared to enhance revenue in the short term may fail to take cognizance of the long term benefits from the adoption of improved practices.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-05n.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter52IDCattle, broadleaf forests and the agricultural modernization law of Honduras: the case of OlanchoSunderlin, W.D.Rodriguez, J.ACIFORBogor, Indonesia1996cattleagriculturemodernizationlawcase studiesThe broadleaf forests of Honduras are among the most extensive in Central America and have been subject to rapid deforestation. Among the important factors in the process of deforestation has been the growth of cattle farming. Structural adjustment policies enacted in 1992 have been directed at overcoming grave economic problems. The authors of the adjustment plans have assumed the same policies will help protect the natural resource base of the country, including its forests. Field research conducted in August - November 1994 sought to understand the effect of the 1992 Agricultural Modernization Law (AML) on the cattle sector and on the management of broadleaf forests in eastern Honduras. The research found that the cattle sector may have benefited from reforms introduced through the new policies (this remains to be proven), while state capabilities in forest conservation and management have clearly declined. The recommendations of this report are to: (1) strengthen the capacity of the state to enforce existing laws aimed at protecting broadleaf forests; (2) revise and amend the provisions of the AML to include provisions aimed specifically at the protection of broadleaf forests; (3) strengthen efforts to harmonise policies among various eco-nomic sectors; (4) conduct a national cadastral survey and implement national land-use planning; and (5) strengthen official support and the policy environment for community-based forest management. There are three further research questions in need of attention: (1) Would intensification of the cattle sector assist efforts to reduce deforestation?; (2) Is halting of road construction in the vicinity of forests a promising way of lowering rates of deforestation?; (3) To what extent is broadleaf deforestation alleviated through attention to the cattle sector alone?http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-07.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-07S.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter54IDCapacity for Forestry Research in the Southern African Development CommunityKowero, G.S.Spilsbury, M.J1997capacity buildingresearch institutesforestryresearchassessmentIn 1995 a survey of research capacity was conducted at institutions undertaking forestry-related research in the SADC countries. This document presents a review of the methods available for the assessment of research capacity and summarizes previous efforts to assess research capacity in the region. The methodology adopted makes use of common indicators thereby allowing comparisons across institutions. The results of the survey are discussed and re-emphasize the need to prioritize manpower recruitment, training and development; only about half of the scientists researching forestry and related issues have sufficient training and scientific exposure. The management of research is another area requiring urgent attention in order to minimize the negative impacts of many of the economic and other externalities afflicting research in the region. About 17% and 28% of the institutions surveyed allocate more than 20% of their budgets and staff time respectively, to user groups. This raises questions on how research priorities are formulated and the relevance of the research in progress. There is considerable interaction between institutions in the region, but how this can translate into coordinated collaborative activities remains unclear. Although the indicators for the various research capacity parameters do not capture the totality of capacity implications, they provide useful insights on the existing local capacity to undertake forestry research in eastern and southern Africa.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-11.pdfSeriesenCIFOR Head Quarter59IDOverview on forest research in AfricaSayer, J.A.Palmer, J.R1995forestryresearchresearch institutescooperationcapacity buildingLong and consultative planning processes have been undertaken to develop priorities for strategic forestry research in Africa. The results have contributed to the development of CIFOR's medium-term plan, so that there seems to be a good match between Africa's needs and CIFOR's intentions. The political divisions of Africa make it difficult to achieve critical mass in public sector institutions. There should be renewed attempts to establish group-country research so as to maximize the effectiveness of the small pool of trained research staff. Institutional strengthening and human resource development needs more attention nationally and from donor agencies. Forestry research institutions should recruit staff from a wider range of disciplines or should develop partnerships with a wider range of organizations. A much greater effort in economics and social science research is required to compensate for the frequent policy failures. CIFOR seeks active collaboration with appropriate organizations in Africa.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-01n.pdfSeries17p.enCIFOR Head Quarter61IDTesting Criteria and Indicators for assessing the sustainability of forest management: genetic criteria and indicatorsNamkoong, G.Boyle, T.J.B.Gregorius, H.-R.Joly, H.Savolainen, O.Ratnam, W.Young, A1996testingcriteriaindicatorsassessmentsustainabilityforest managementThis working paper contains proposals for specific genetic criteria and indicators (C&I) which are expected to be part of a more general set of biological C&I. These proposals are intended for use in guiding tropical forest management but the indicators and verifiers we describe are not in the form of simple prescriptions where a single measurement can be recommended for a single causal effect. Since genetic dynamics operate at a different time and spatial scale than the events that can be observed at the level of forest stand effects, a single forest stand event can have effects on several genetic processes. In addition, the pattern of genetic diversity that has already evolved is due to a balance of several evolutionary forces that operate at different spatial and temporal scales and forest practices would therefore be expected to affect several genetic factors. To provide guidance on what genetic processes may be affected by forest practices, we therefore first describe the factors that affect genetic processes and then provide a matrix of relationships between types of forest level events and genetically significant factors. Since the intention of the larger project is to steer possible management actions, the report identifies two main concerns of sustainability: first, whether the genetic variation is being maintained, and second, what conservation or enhancement measures can be effective. We state one criterion and for each of these concerns, sets of indicators are defined that would address the issue of sustainability. For each indicator, sets of verifiers are provided which differ in the biologically relevant feature they measure or in the precision and technical facilities they require. Finally, the need for rapid assessment and precision under difficult field conditions requires research and development of efficient direct and surrogate measures of the genetic resource. We therefore include recommendations for short- and medium term research that would improve the scientific value, cost-effectiveness, ease of use, and further development of genetic criteria and indicators.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-10.pdfSeries12p.enCIFOR Head Quarter70IDWhat futures for the people of the tropical forests?Byron, R.N.Arnold, J.E.M1997peopletropical forestsThe importance of forest products to households living in or near forests has been increasingly recognized. Estimates of numbers of people who in some way rely on forests, for survival or livelihoods, vary widely. Yet numbers alone do not reveal the forests' importance to diverse users. A typology that recognizes the varied relationships of people to forests and forest products permits assessment of the impacts of economic, cultural, and social changes. Understanding these relationships is crucial for institutions to adapt to changing patterns of demand, use, and supply, and to support both "forest-dependent" and "forest-related" peopleshttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-19.pdfSeries16p.enCIFOR Head Quarter79IDPromoting forest conservation through ecotourism income?Wunder, S1999community involvementenvironmental impactforest resourcesincomemethodologynature conservationnature tourismparticipationguidelinesfactor analysisA principal criterion for classifying a tourism operation as 'ecotourism' is that local residents at the site should receive substantial economic benefits, which serve both to raise local living standards and as enhanced incentives for nature conservation. This paper sets out a methodological framework for analysis of the alleged participation-income-conservation link, and applies it to the Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve in the Ecuadorian Amazon region. Three Cuyabeno ethnic groups involved in tourism, the Quichuas, Siona-Secoyas and Cofans, are characterised by different tourism participation models, ranging from autonomous operations to pure salary employment. Results do not support the frequently held belief that autonomous operations are 'better off' by yielding higher local benefits; rather, income size is determined by the site-specific degree of tourism specialisation, which largely depends on the tourist appeal and level of conservation of the natural site. Annual tourism cash flows are found to be much higher than previously estimated (from US$ 15 000-50 000 per village), which represents a significant rise in local purchasing power. In terms of conservation incentives, this study confirmed that income from tourism tends to change local attitudes and behaviour, such as reducing overexploitation, creating 'untouchable' zones and user quotas. The more autonomous the operation, the more incentive exists to rationalise resource use. Also, the mere fact that labour time is invested in tourism leaves less opportunity for hunting and other activities that may have been practised unsustainably in the past. Further, tourism income helps to protect the Cuyabeno Reserve against important external threats, such as oil drilling and squatter colonisation. Recommendations include proposals for gradually augmenting local participation, strengthening both incentives and tourist operations in the fields of food production, handicrafts and the training of local tourist guides. Even with these safeguards, the nexus of social-economic-environmental change will often come in clusters that make it impossible to distinguish between 'desirable' and 'undesirable' impacts, in the unambiguous manner suggested by the axioms of ecotourism.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-21.pdfSeries24p.enCIFOR Head Quarter538IDA conceptual framework for CIFOR&rsquo;s research on non-wood forest productsRuiz Perez, M1995non-timber forest productsCIFORresearchMost NWFP research is site specific and sectoral, thus reducing its potential value for policy analysis and development actions. The main challenge for future research is to develop general frameworks within which to structure dispersed studies and to transform them into useful policy- and actionguiding instruments. In the first part of the paper three types of mutually supporting frameworks are propose& functional Perez of extractive economy situations, general theories and models. The second part of the paper analyses the complexity of extractive economies from a dynamic perspective, exploring some trends and hypotheses. Six major dynamic dimensions are considered.* forest-woodland dynamics; non-market Perez market dynamics; technological changes; use of Perez Perez economy; people's perceptions, preferences and opportunities Perez cultural dynamics; and policy development. Finally, the paper proposes a hypothetical model of the global Perez Perez with a renewed, multi-functional role linked both to their physical properties as well as to their new social, cultural and environmental attributes.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-06n.pdfSeries18p.enCIFOR Head Quarter66IDResearch on non-timber forest products in selected countries in Southern and East Africa: themes, research issues, priorities and constraintsRuiz Perez, M.Broekhoven, A.J.Aluma, J.W.R.Iddi, S.Lowore, J.D.Mutemwa, S.M.Odera, J.A1997non-timber forest productsresearchconferencesIn this paper, the outcomes of a consultative meeting on non-timber forest products are reported and discussed. The meeting was organised by CIFOR and IUCN's Eastern Africa Regional Office on 15 and 16 September 1995 in Nairobi, Kenya, with the aim of discussing research priorities and information gaps related to non-timber forest products. The workshop brought together 11 people, representing forest research institutions, NGOs and other organisations involved in research related to non-timber forest products. The countries represented were Malawi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. During the meeting priority themes and issues were identified. These relate to management systems, policy and institutions, and community roles and social dimensions. Priority constraints include lack of personnel with appropriate expertise, inadequate financial resources, and insufficient data and information. A large number of solutions to overcome these constraints was discussed. It is concluded that since the main relevance of non-timber forest products in Southern and East Africa is at the local and subsistence level, an elaboration of the results of the meeting into workable research questions and methods should be defined at that level in an iterative process of action research, involving researchers and local users and managers of the forest. The meeting can be considered as a first, though authoritative, approximation of the needs in research on non-timber forest products in the region. It was agreed that elaboration of the findings of the meeting into specific action would be the only useful next step.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-12.pdfSeries33p.enCIFOR Head Quarter75IDCameroon&rsquo;s logging industry: structure, economic importance and effects of devaluationEba'a Atyi, R1998loggingindustryeffectsThe current study was conducted in Cameroon from July 1996 to June 1997. In general, it aims to describe the current structure of the Cameroon logging industry, assess its importance within Cameroon's economy, and analyse recent developement which the industry has experienced since the devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994. Study method consisted mainly of carrying out a structural survey of logging enterprises based on a trialled, written questionnaire, reviewing existing documentation within the forestry administration and timber exporting organisations, and conducting an elementary statistical analysis of the information gatheredhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-14.pdfSeries40p.enCIFOR Head Quarter395CMRational exploitations: economic criteria & indicators for sustainable management of tropical forestsRuitenbeek, J.Cartier, J1998criteriaindicatorssustainabilitytropical forestsforest managementIf one is of the mindset that the world is fundamentally chaotic and irrational, then the discpline of economics probably has little to offer. But if one accepts the notion that there is some method to the apparent madness of individuals, governments and organizations, then economic inquiry does have no some contributions to make. In this excercise, we argue that economic criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management should reflect the dimensions of efficiency, equity and sustainability, and need to look beyond the forest stand to institutional and policy issues. If we let such criteria inform our decisions, we may yet end up with exploitation of the forests. It would, however, be rational exploitation; rational explotation reflecting an enlightened self-interest that captures the broader global needs of current and future generationshttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-17.pdfSeries56p.enCIFOR Head Quarter413CMTree planting in Indonesia: trends, impacts and directionsPotter, L.Lee, J1998treesplantingThis report details the results of a consultancy that aimed to: (i) identify tree planting activities currently prominent in Indonesia; (ii) seek reasons for their ascendancy; (iii) monitor perceptions of local and transmigrant populations regarding the opportunities and constraints associated with tree planting options; and (iv) briefly examine the environmental impacts of dominant tree planting activities. Oil palm is seen to emerge as the winner on all counts, just as the IMF has endorsed further development of tree-based cash crops. Forestry is in retreat. Fires have further undermined some of the best Kalimantan forests, which now face increased pressures from the demands of the large firms operating logging concessions, plantation forests and oil palm estates. Newly impoverished populations are also turning in increased numbers to the extraction of forest resources. Indonesia is the world's cheapest producer of palm oil products, largely because of low labour costs. Future plantations are likely to want to cut costs further, especially those estate companies being attracted from Malaysia. Huge markets for palm oil products, both local and international, will ensure the industry's future growth. Replacing much of Indonesia's biodiverse tropical forest and cultivations of small-holders by oil palm monocultures, is not an environmentally happy prospect. It is, however, a prospect embraced with equanimity, even eagerness, by local administrations. While the pulpwood monocultures will also engage in the battle for land, the demise of many is likely, except in specific areas where they can attract small-holder growers. Big questions remain on the continuity and sustainability of all these tree crops, together with uncertainty surrounding the continued role of the small-holder as an independent grower and producer of a variety of tree crops.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-18-A.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-18-B.pdfSeries85p.enCIFOR Head Quarter414IDSelf-governance and forest resourcesOstrom E1999community forestrycommunity involvementforest managementforest productsforest resourcesharvestinginstitutionssustainabilityself helporganizationsreviewsForest resources share attributes with many other resource systems that make difficult their governance and management in a sustainable, efficient and equitable manner. Destruction or degradation of forest resources is most likely to occur in open-access forests where those involved, or external authorities, have not established effective governance. Conventional theories applied to forest resources presumed that forest users themselves were incapable of organizing to overcome the temptations to overharvest. Extensive empirical research, however, has challenged this theory and illustrated the many ways that forest users themselves have devised rules that regulate harvesting patterns so as to ensure the sustainability of forest resources over time. There is now a large body of literature analysing common-pool resources such as many fisheries, irrigation systems and rangelands. A growing consensus exists in this literature concerning the attributes of common-pool resources and of resource users that enhance the probability that self-organization will occur. Many of these attributes seem also to help predict when forest users will self-organize. Forest users are more likely to devise their own rules when they use a forest that is starting to deteriorate but has not substantially disappeared, when some forest products provide early warning concerning forest conditions, when forest products are predictably available, and when the forest is sufficiently small that users can develop accurate knowledge of conditions. Self-organization is more likely to occur when forest resources are highly salient to users, and when users have a common understanding of the problems they face, have a low discount rate, trust one another, have autonomy to make some of their own rules, an d have prior organizational experience. These attributes of forests and of the user community affect the benefits and costs of organizing to protect and enhance forest resources. When users create organizations consistent with a set of design principles, they are likely to be able to sustain their own institutional arrangements over a long period of time. This growing consensus about the attributes of users and resources has been applied in the design of policies intended to enhance the participation of local users in the governance and management of common-pool resources, including many forests. Supporting further research - especially studies of forests and their users over time - is an important foundation for even more effective public policies in the future.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-20.pdfSeries15p.enCIFOR Head Quarter536IDLe marche des produits forestiers non ligneux de l'Afrique Centrale en France et en Belgique: produits, acteurs, circuits de distribution et debouches actuelsTabuna, H1999non-timber forest productstradedistributionIn France and Belgium, ther has been a trade of non-timber forest products from Central Africa for nearly 30 years. Traded products come chiefly, by order of importance, from Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of Congo. They are many (45 in total, of which 13 come from native species), but the more regularly imported are saka-saka or cassava leaves (Manihot esculenta), ndolé (Vernonia sp), fumbua or koko (Gnetum africanum and G. buchholzianum), safou or bush butter (Dacryodes edulis), many spices and condiments such as njansan (Ricinodendron heudelotii), wild mango (Irvingia gabonensis), pèbè (Monodora myristica), and two stimulants: kola nut (Cola acuminata and C. nitida) and bitter kola (Garcinia kola). These products are imported mainly by air, and are largely intended for nationals of Central African countries living in Paris, Brussels, several other French and Belgian cities, and recently in England, Germany and Switzerland. Others, often in small quantities, go to African restaurants and the market of 'bio' products. Initiated by the first students and trainees from Central Africa in France and Belgium, this trade was originally carried out exclusively by European grocers specialising in general food products. European, North African, Central African and Asian grocers now carry it out. They all run shops specialising in the sale of products to African and West Indian customers. They charge prices sometimes eightfold the prices prevailing in Central African markets, which paradoxically does not slow down the demand for ethnical and biological products, and health or dietetic foods among young French, Belgian and European consumers. This paper describes the organisation and operation of the non-timber forest products market (selling points, actors, distribution networks, prices, bottlenecks, etc.) and its potential for development. It also formulates recommendations to release constraints to its dynamics, and suggests access paths for use by actors in Central Africa.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-19.pdfSeries32p.enCIFOR Head Quarter537ID0854-9818The role of international research agencies in strengthening forest research in AfricaSayer, J.A.Ng, F.S.P.Palmer, J.R1995international organizationsForest Researchresearch institutesAmong the range of problems requiring research, some are most relevant for particular countries and require special local knowledge or facilities for research. Others are common to eco-regions or ecosystems which span several countries; for these, a regional approach through networked research groups may be more efficient and effective. CIFOR has identified a set of strategic problems, through surveys of demands, which involve research leading to generalizable results, adaptable to local situations. CIFOR will work through institution-strengthening associations with national partners towards resolution of these strategic problems.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-02n.pdfSeries9p.enCIFOR Head Quarter62IDApproaches to sustainable forest managementPutz, F. E1995forest managementsustainabilityClaims of sustainability are virtually impossible to prove but enough is known about tropical forest ecology and silviculture to protect ecosystem functions and maintain biodiversity while still deriving financial profits from logging. Rapid improvements in long-term forest production will derive from better planning of harvesting operations and stand improvement treatments. Lack of good management plans generally results in logging practices that destroy natural regeneration and increase forest susceptibility to soil loss, wildfires, and weed infestations. Participation of forest managers, timber importers, researchers, and environmentalists in the development of methods for assessing the social and ecological impacts of tropical forestry operations inspires hope for sustainability.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/spanish.pdfSeries7p.enCIFOR Head Quarter64IDCriteria and indicators for assessing the sustainability of forest management: conservation of biodiversityStork, N.E.Boyle, T.J.B.Dale, V.Eeley, H.Finegan, B.Lawes, M.Manokaran, N.Prabhu, R.Soberon, J1997criteriaindicatorsassessmentsustainabilityforest managementconservationbiodiversityThe need for new criteria and indicators for the assessment of biodiversity conservation as part of sustainable forest management of tropical forests has been identified as a priority by many international organisations. Those biodiversity criteria and indicators which formed part of a much broader initial assessment by the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) (Prabhu et al. 1996) were found to be deficient. This Working Paper contains specific proposals for biodiversity criteria and indicators. These proposals originated from a workshop of experts, and are intended to be adapted and refined for use in specific situations. Criteria and indicators need to be applied at the forest management unit level and those for biodiversity are just one part of a package that includes socio-economic and other categories. Biodiversity is an extraordinarily broad concept and, given the huge diversity of life in tropical forests, it is impossible to make rapid direct assessments of biodiversity in forests in anything other than a superficial manner. It is likely that there will be limited skilled human resources and time for biodiversity assessment in any system of criteria and indicators, so it is important that we design tools that do not require expert application and interpretation. The usefulness of "indicator groups", "keystone" species and other concepts is still argued among biologists and their utility is questionable. This paper suggests that, in contrast to more traditional approaches to assessing taxonomic diversity, it may be possible to assess the effects of management practices on biodiversity by examining the state of those processes that generate or maintain biodiversity. The indicators and verifiers that we have suggested examine the state of these processes. We recommend that for each indicator, quick and easy verifiers, which we designate "Primary" verifiers are used first, and more sophisticated ("Secondary") verifiers are used only if clear results are not obtained from Primary verifiers. This paper is merely a first step in creating a suitable framework for applying a proposed a set of forest biodiversity indicators and verifiers. The framework and the indicators and verifiers require field testing, and we fully expect there to be changes resulting from the field trials, which will be reflected in major improvements in their effectiveness. For the sake of brevity we have not discussed the advantages and disadvantages of the verifiers in full. While changes are expected, the approach taken is powerful in that it recognises the relationship between interventions and consequences, and it demonstrates that some indicators are more widely valuable than others.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-17.pdfSeries29p.enCIFOR Head Quarter77ID