Early response of selected tree species to liberation thinning in a young secondary forest in Northeastern Costa RicaGuariguata, M.R1999stand structuresilviculturetropical foreststhinningdiametersecondary forestsShort-term growth responses in individuals of four commercial tree species (Laetia procera, Simarouba amara, Tapirira guianensis, and Vochysia ferruginea) were evaluated one and two years after `liberation thinning' in a young (4.5-year-old), dense secondary forest stand located in an agricultural settlement in wet, Northeastern Costa Rica. Liberation thinning involved manual elimination (either by cutting or stem girdling) of the adjacent `ring' of competitors in order to release future crop trees (median diameter: 8 cm DBH), selected on the basis of stem and crown form. The application of liberation thinning significantly increased diameter growth of future crop trees with respect to unmanipulated counterparts. Young stands in the region may be attractive systems for simple silvicultural manipulations due to rapid growth responsiveness, facilitated by manageable tree size. Detailed observations on stand development and patterns of crown stratification in coexisting tree species in other dense secondary stands in the area seems warranted in order to refine silvicultural options aimed at increasing tree diameter growth.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter1447CRForest Ecology and Management0378-11272-3124CAMPFIRE experiences in ZimbabweCampbell, B.M.Sithole, B.Frost, P2000community involvementnatural resourcesresource managementcommunity forestryArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter1404ZWScience5450287The case of Prunus africana (J.D. Hook): lesson from a non-timber forest product from Mount CameroonSchroder, J.M2000barknon-timber forest productssocial activitiessustainabilityPrunus africana trees' bark from moist forests on Mt. Cameroon produce medicinal extractive that is traded internationally with high economic significance. Because sustainable bark harvesting was widely abandoned since the early 1990s and because the economic status of the rural population has deteriorated in the area, illegal and destructive debarking became common. Under the present form of exploitation this tree species is expected to become extremely scarce in the region within a few years. To understand this recent development, historical, legal, and social conditions of the local populations are highlighted. With regard to these constraints, options for sustainable management of this valuable non-timber forest product are presented on the legal and technical level to maintain a commodity that has a high potential to contribute to the socioeconomic development of the rural people.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter1385CMInternational Tree Crops Journal410What futures for the people of the tropical forests?Byron, R.N.Arnold, J.E.M1999community forestryforest productsforestspeoplerelationshipssocioeconomicscultureThe importance of forest products to households living in or near forests has been increasingly recognized. Estimates of numbers of people who in some way rely on forests, for survival or livelihoods, vary widely. Yet numbers alone do not reveal the forests' importance to diverse users. A typology that recognizes the varied relationships of people to forests and forest products permits assessment of the impacts of economic, cultural, and social changes. Understanding these relationships is crucial for institutions to adapt to changing patterns of demand, use, and supply, and to support both "forest-dependent" and "forest-related" peoples.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter560CMWorld Development0305-750X527The effects of structural adjustment on deforestation and forest degradation in lowland BoliviaKaimowitz, D.Thiele, G.Pacheco, P1999deforestationeconomicsstructural adjustmentsoyabeansBolivia's structural adjustment policies, initiated in 1985, increased poverty among certain groups, but this did not lead to widespread migration to the agricultural frontier. Nor did adjustment greatly affect the average area planted in annual crops by small lowland farmers. Structural adjustment contributed to large-scale forest clearing for soybean production for export and, to a lesser extent, forest degradation by lumber companies. The economic benefits generated by soybean and timber expansion may have outweighed the environmental costs, but alternative policies might have reduced those costs and improved the distribution of the benefits.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter608BOWorld Development0305-750X327Hunting primates and managing forests: the case of Iban forest farmers in Indonesian BorneoWadley, R.L.Colfer, C.J.P.Hood, I.G1997Hunting by Iban forest farmers in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, is an important part of their subsistence economy, and as such became a focus of study as part of a conservation project in the Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve. In this paper, we examine Iban hunting of nonhuman primates with comparison to other large mammals. We analyze rates of encounter and capture, comparing encounters, hunting trips, and animal numbers. Information on habitats hunted shows the importance of secondary and old growth forest. Also examined are Iban attitudes, game preferences, and taboos. The significance of these findings is discussed with regard to the threats to wildlife from increases in the use of shotguns, human population, and habitat destruction, showing that conservation may be aided by promoting or enhancing certain aspects of the traditional Iban agroforestry system.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter1321BOHuman Ecology0300-7839225Municipal governments and forest management in lowland BoliviaKaimowitz, D.Vallejos, C.Pacheco, P.Balanza, P.P.Lopez, R1998rural developmentgovernment policylocal governmentlawforest policyforest managementcommunity involvementdecentralizationRecent decentralization and forestry laws in Bolivia give municipal governments a strong role in forest management. This article analyzes the impact of those laws on local government activities related to logging, protected areas, indigenous territories, and land-use planning. It con-cludes that the laws have created new opportunities for indigenous people, small farmers, and small-scale timber producers to gain access to forest resources and influence forest policy, although they are not always able to take advantage of those opportunities. The article identifies both positive and negative trends with regard to the laws' impact on resource management, although it is premature to draw firm conclusions.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter420BOJournal of Environment and Development17The Effect of population and migration on forest cover in IndonesiaSunderlin, W.D.Resosudarmo, I.A.P1999deforestationgovernment policypopulation growthThe massive loss of quantity and quality of natural forest cover in Indonesia threatens an important source of foreign exchange and employment. Several studies and government policies indicate that population growth, particularly among small landholders, is the principal cause of deforestation. Although there is an element of truth to these studies and policies, they greatly oversimplify and distort the issue of Indonesian deforestation. This article evaluates "population-centered" (neo-Malthusian) explanations of forest cover change in Indonesia in the light of non-population-centered (non-Malthusian) evidence. The conclusion is that although population growth is an important part of of the explanantion of Indonesian deforestation, it should be seen as an i ntermediate variable, and not as an independent variable. The policy implication is that nonpopulation factors should receive greater attention in policy measures directed at controlling inappropriate deforestationArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter580IDJournal of Environment and Development28Land use change in soybean production systems in the Brazilian savanna: the role of policy and market conditionsSmith, J.Cadavid, J.C.Ayarza, M.de Aguiar, J.L.P.Rosa, Roberto1999land use changepolicyresource managementtechnologysavannasinnovation adoptionThis paper analyzes land use change in the Brazilian savanna and draws out policy implications about the adoption of resource management technologies. Resources management technologies are more likely to be adopted in areas experiencing a long-term deterioration in market conditions. Adoptions occurs primarily to increase long-term economic viability. Thus adoption may coexist with adverse environmental and social impacts. Past opportunities for asset accumulation appear to be a pre-condition for adoption, indicating the importance of building up the resilience of farmers (particularly the resource-poor) during good times. partnerships with the private sector can contribute significantly to technology diffusion.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter610BRJournal of Sustainable Agriculture2/315Regeneracion y crecimiento de la caoba (Swietenia macrophylla King) en selvas de Quintana RooSnook, L.K2000growthforest managementSwietenia macrophyllaregenerationsustainabilityTo determine the regeneration dynamics and growth rate of mahogany in the natural tropical forests of Quintana Roo, oral histories were used to find essentially even-aged stands that had become established naturally between 2 and 75 years ago, after a hurricane, forest fires, or mechanical distrubance (logyards) had occured. Trees in these stands were sampled using transects and sample plots, and differentiated into residual trees that had become established subsequently. New individuals of mahogany became established at an average density of 18 per ha after fires and 6 per ha after hurricane. This pattern indicates that mahoganies become established more successfully on clearings than in gaps, which are densely populated with saplings and seedlings of other species. The average diameters of post-disturbance mahoganies in stands of different ages revealed that mahogany trees grow to 26 cm DBH in 45 years and 37 cm DBH in 75 years. Extrapolating from the last periodic annual increment (0.38 cm year-1), it was calculated that a mahogany tree requires over 120 years to reach the current commercial diameter of 55 cm, although the fastest growing trees may reach this size in 82 years. To ensure the sustainability of mahogany timber harvests from the forests of Quintana Roo, it would be appropriate to reevaluate the current cutting cycle in light of the calculated growth rates, and to try to duplicate the conditions that have favored natural regeneration of mahogany in these forests.ArticlesesCIFOR Head Quarter1166BRRev. Ciencia Forestal en Mexico8725Réaction de peuplements forestiers tropicaux à des interventions sylvicolesFavrichon, V.Damio, T.Doumbia, F.Dupuy, B.Higuchi, N.Kadir K.Maitre, H.F.Nguyen-The, N.Petrucci, Y.Sist, P1997forest managementlogging effectsCIRAD-Forêt research on the dynamics of tropical moist forests has been carried since 1974, in collaboration with different tropical forest research institutes. Research is based on a worldwide network of experimental layouts whose most important sites are located in Africa ( Mopri, Irobo and La Tênê in Cote-d'Ivoire and M'baiki in Central African Republic), in South-America (ZF2 at Manaus in Brazil, Paracou in French Guiana) and in Asia (STREK in Beurau in Indonesia). the layouts have been designed with a common methodology and followed-up in a coherent way. They permit to study the dynamics of tropical moist forest ecosystem and the response of different forest types to various interventions such as logging and the silvicultural treatments. Many studies have been carried out in these permanent plots. Some results have already led to implementation of large scale forest management projects (for example Yapo in Cote-d'Ivoire). The aim of this paper is to present the average parameters of the natural forest dynamics (growth, mortality and recruitment). Then we will show the changes in these parameters following an artificial disturbance and the relationship between the stand density and its dynamics. Lastly, we will use these relations to calculate the time required for the forest stand to recover its original state after logging.ArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter434IDBois et Forets des Tropiques4254Structure et floristique de la foret primaire a Dipterocarpacees de l'Est-KalimantanSist, P.Saridan, A1999Dipterocarpaceaeforest inventoriesspeciesForest inventories conducted in Indonesia (Berau District, East Kalimantan) highlighted the main festures of the Dipterocarpaceae primary forest. Dipterocarpaceae species accounted for 25% of the stand (diameter > 10 cm), 50% of the basal area and 60% of the standing volume. In three primary forest control plots (total area 12 ha), 538 taxa were inventoried, with a mean of 182 different tree species per hetare. The Berau forest, in terms of stand density, basal area and standing volume, resembled Borneo forests, and specially Sabah forest. However, it had much higher proportion of Dipterocarpaceae species, which could be due to the absence of major climatic variations in this region. Although floristic variability within the stand has been explained by edaphic factors in previous studies, the present results indicated that forest dynamics are critical in determining the species composition of the forestArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter575IDBois et Forets des Tropiques1259Gender relations and witches among the indigenous communities of Jharkhand, IndiaMullick, S.B2000gender relationstraditional societywoman's statussocioeconomicscultureIndigenous societies in India are showing an increasing tendency towards growing inequality in gender relations. This is more pronounced in societies that have integrated with mainstream Indian society. The objective of this paper is to determine if there is any co-relation between the growth of unequal gender relations and the widespread belief and practice of condemnation of women witches, particularly among the Munda and the Ho in Jharkhand in India. Through an analysis and interpretation of myths, legends and witch songs, the paper endeavours to see the belief in which craft in the context of the changing socio-economic condition of the indigenous peoples of India. The belief in witches and the targeting of women as witches are only the external manifestations of a deep-rooted gender struggle as patriarchy in the dominant Hindu society influences indigenous cultures.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter467INGender, Technology and Development34Fire in the Danau Sentarum landscape: historical, present perspectivesDennis, R.A.Erman, A.Meijaard, E2000forest firesfire causesfire effectsremote sensinglandscapeThis paper presents a quantitative analysis of the extent of forest and scrub burning in the Danau Sentarum area, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Burn scar areas were detected using remotely sensed data from four periods (1973, 1990, 1994 and 1997) obtained from a 24-year record. The results show a significant increase in the total burnt area in the 197,000 ha study site, from 5,483 ha in 1973 to 17,941 ha by mid-1997. Of the area burnt by 1997, 8,021 ha, or 45% of the total burnt area, was tall forest (fresh-water swamp, peat swamp, or riverine) in 1990. This indicates a considerable component of forest destruction in the burning process. Another trend that was found was an increase in the maximum size of burn scars between 1973 and 1997, from 581 ha to 1,339 ha. It is still too early to fully explain these trends in terms of underlying causes, but field data suggest three main factors that interact in a way that is not yet fully understood. These are environment factors, resource extraction activities and increasing human population pressure. Another potential factor, with an as yet unclear role in fires, is conflicts within and between villages. Further in-depth research is required to investigate the underlying causes of fire in Danau Sentarum.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter887INBorneo Research Bulletin0006-780631The fishery of Danau SentarumDudley, R.G2000fishingcatch compositionfishing gearfishery managementfishery resourcesnational parksnature conservationregulationsguidelinesManagement of the Danau Sentarum National Park for ecosystem and species conservation must accomodate fishing activity by thousands of villagers living there. Fishery investigations helped determine how this might be accomplished. Fishing gear surveys revealed that villagers use 800 km of gill nets, 20,000 traps and 500,000 hooks in 80,000 ha of lakes, rivers and flooded forest within the park. Data from 4,000 catches were collected by local people during 1992 through 1995.The estimated annual catch of between 7,800 and13,000 tonnes (or 97,5 to 162,5 kg ha-l) is caught by cylindrical rattan traps 23%, gillnets 20%, cast nets 18%, other traps 15%, hooks 14% and funnel nets 9%. These data provide insight into what changes might make fishing activity more compatible with conservation. Villagers and data indicate some species are less abundant and smaller than in the previous years, but the needed management via direct government regulation is unlikely to succeed. A promising approach would emphasize management by villagers. Regulations at the village level exist, as does understanding of the need for a better management system. Developing this potential into an officially recognised fishery management system could improve conservation of this important wetland. Suggested management starting points include the concept of trading exlusive resource use rights for compliance with conservation regulation and the establishment of a residence permit system for the park. Suggestions for mesh size regulations and other gear changes, to be used as starting points for discussions with villagers are also presented.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter888INBorneo Research Bulletin0006-780631Declining orangutan populations in and around Danau SentarumRusson, A.E..Meijard, E.Dennis, R.A2000forest covernational parksnature conservationPrimatesassessmentpopulationsland useThis paper presents the combined results of two separate orangutan survey efforts and an assessment of land cover change analysis in the Danau Sentarum, National Park (DNSP), West Kalimantan, Indonesia These studies show that the DNSP and surrounding areas contain high numbers of orangutans, making these populations of global significance to the species survival in the wild. However, in the park and its surrounding areas, 40,339 ha habitat disappeared between 1973 and 1990, and 32,586 ha between 1990 and 1997. This equals a total decrease of 29% in the total orangutan habitat over the past 27 years. In that same period contigious habitat patches judged to be large enough to support a substantial orangutan population also decreases in number and in size. Therefore, orangutan populations in DNSP are likely in decline. In addition to this the most recent land cover changes and land-use plans indicate that much primary orangutan habitat is still targeted for logging or conversion into plantations. The main reason for decreasing trend in orangutan population is that the present Park boundary does not include the most important contigious orang utan habitats in the north and east of the park. Therefore it is recommended extending the boundary of the present park to include prime unprotected orangutan habitat. Also, connecting the Park to the nearby Bentuang Karimun National Park would joint two important, now segregated orangutan population and therefore improve the long-term survival prospects for the species in this region.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter914INBorneo Research Bulletin0006-780631After the conservation project: conditions and prospectsWadley, R.L.Dennis, R.A.Meijaard, E.Erman, A.Valentinus, H2000nature conservationnational parksoil palmsplantationsillicit loggingwildlifeforest damageThis research note provides a brief look at the Danau Sentarum National Park (DSNP), West Kalimanta, Indonesia, and its vicinity after the end of the conservation project. It describes the current threats to the park which largely come in the form of boundary confusion, oil palm plantations, mining, logging, boundary disputes, and fisheries decline. It also considers some bright spots such as NGO activities that have followed the conservation project, positive aspects of local logging, and increased community autonomy. Finally the paper discusses prospects for wildlife management in the new era of reform in Indonesia.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter915INBorneo Research Bulletin0006-780631CIFOR/Japan Research Project on "Rehabilitation of Degraded Tropical Forest Ecosystems"Kobayashi, S1998degraded forestsrehabilitationecosystemstropical forestsCIFORTropical forests are decreasing at the rate of 16.9 million hectares per year due mainly to clearing for agriculture and shifting cultivation. Moreover, timber harvesting results in more than 5 million hectares of tropical forest becoming secondary forests every year. CIFOR has a mission to contribute to the sustained well-being of people in developing countries, through collaborative strategic and applied research. CIFOR's research on 'Rehabilitation of Degraded Tropical Forest Ecosystems' projects started in 1996. Seven institutions, including UNMUL-Indonesia, FCFUM-Argentina, PNGFRI-Papua New Guinea, INIA-Peru, UPM-Malaysia, KUFF-Thailand, and EMBRAPA-Brazil are collaborating in research on: (i) evaluation of forest harvesting impacts on the forest ecosystems, (ii) development of methods to rehabilitate logged-over forests and degraded forest lands, and (iii) development of silvicultural techniques on degraded forest lands.ArticlesjaCIFOR Head Quarter492INTropical Forestry41Lessons learned from the implementation of reduced-impact logging in hilly terrain in Sabah, MalaysiaPinard, M.A.Putz, F.E.Tay, J2000logging effectsreductiondamageskiddingimprovement fellingsCopyrighted 2000 by the Commonwealth Forestry Association. Reprinted by permission. More details are available on http://www.cfa-international.org/IFR.htmlBetween 1992 and 1997, about 2400 ha of old growth dipterocarp forest in southeastern Sabah was logged to reduced-impact logging (RIL) guidelines as part of a pilot carbon offset project. Harvesting planning, vine cutting, directional felling and skidding restrictions contributed to a reduction in stand damage from 50% to 28% of the original stems; damage to soil was reduced from 13% to 9% of total area in RIL relative to conventional logging areas. Residual stands in RIL areas had greater vertical structure and better stocking of commercial timber species than stands in conventionally logged areas, with positive gains for conservation of biodiversity and sustainability of timber production. Steep terrain and the lack of predictable dry periods were constraints on the ground-based skidding system, and resulted in large volumes of timber being inaccessible, and in production delays caused by wet weather. Introduction of an aerial yarding system in this region would allow a greater proportion of the areas to be harvested in an environmentally acceptable way.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/APinard0001.pdfArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter614MYInternational Forestry Review12Land-cover change trajectories in Southern CameroonMertens, B.Lambin, E.F2000deforestationland usechangehuman activityroadsremote sensinglandscape modelThe objective of this study is to better understand the complexity of deforestation processes in southern Cameroon by testing a multivariate, spatial model of land-cover change trajectories associated with deforestation. The spatial model integrates a spectrum of independent variables that characterise land rent on a spatially explicit basis. The use of a time series of high-spatial resolution remote sensing images (Landsat MSS and SPOT XS), spanning two decades, allows a thorough validation of spatial projections of future deforestation. Remote sensing observations reveal a continuous trend of forest clearing and forest degradation in southern regions of Cameroon, but with a highly fluctuating rate. A significant proportion of the areas subject to a land-cover conversion experienced other changes in the following years. The study also demonstrates that modelling land-cover change trajectories over several observation years allows a better projection of areas with a high probability of change in land-cover than projecting such areas on the basis of observations from the previous time period alone. Statistical results suggest that, in our southern Cameroon study area, roads mostly increased the accessibility of the forest for migrants rather than providing incentives for a transformation of local subsistence agriculture into market-oriented farming systems. The spatial model developed in this study allows simulations of likely impacts of human actions, leading to a transformation of the landscape (e.g., road projects) on key landscape attributes (e.g., biodiversity). Currently, several road projects or major logging concessions exist in southern Cameroon.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter617CMAnnals of the Association of American Geographers390Accroissements diametriques de quelques essences en foret dense AfricaineDurrieu de Madron, L.Nasi, R.Detienne, P2000forest treesloggingmeasurementrotationsgrowth ringscopy availableThis paper summarises the results of a study on the growth of 17 timber species that are commonly logged in African rainforest areas: aningre (Aningeria altissima), obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon), bosse clair (Guarea cedrata), dabema (Piptadeniastrum africanum), dibetou (Lovoa trichilioides), iroko (Milicia excelsa), kosipo (Entandrophragma candollei), kotibe (Nesogordonia papaverifera), limba (Terminalia superba), longhi (Gambeya boukokoensis), moabi (Baillonella toxisperma), niangon (Heritiera utilis), okoume (Aucoumea klaineana), sapelli (Entandrophragma cylindricum), sipo (Entandrophragma utile), tali (Erythrophleum ivorense) and tiama (Entandrophragma angolense). The data are compared with the results of growth ring analyses carried out in Cameroon, the Central African Republic and Gabon. The data were collected in a series of sampling trips to measure trunk girths in tree plots (Cote d'Ivoire, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Ghana and Gabon). They will provide a basis for calculating rotations between potential successive logging operations within the framework of forest development projects.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter663CMBois et Forets des Tropiques0006-579X1263Can sandalwood in East Nusa Tenggara survive?: lessons from the policy impact on resource sustainabilityRohadi, D.Maryani, R.Belcher, B.Ruiz Perez, M.Widnyana, M2000government policySantalum albumregulationsproductioncopy availableThis paper discusses the policy aspects of sandalwood in East Nusa Tenggara province, focusing primarily on the impacts of regional government regulations on the resource sustainability. The paper is based on a field survey that was conducted during July-August 1999, and various publications and official reports from the regionArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter676IDSandalwood Research Newsletter10Special section: land use options in dry tropical woodland ecosystems in Zimbabwe: introduction, overview and synthesisCampbell, B.M.Costanza, R.van den Belt, M2000economicsecosystemsland uselocal populationmodelsreviewswoodlandsgovernment organizationscopy availableThis articles included in this special section focus on the ecological and economic interactions of woodland use in Western Zimbabwe. One of the aims was to investigate the use of modeling to achieve integration among disciplines. The integrated model draws on the models in the different papers comprising the special section. The model has five ecological sectors, five sectors covering woodland use by local people amd the state forestry organization, two sectors to cover agriculture, one sector for population growth and land use, a sector to cover carbon sequestration, and a sector to calculate net present values of the various uses. The state has usually attempted to keep people and their livestock out of the forest. We show that the private benefits of cropland may be greater than those related to state or local use of the woodland, but further work is required to incorporate the public costs of subsidies to cropland, and the public benefits of woodland services. Livestock production in the woodlands is compatible with woodland management, both from economic and ecological perspectives. Expulsion of forest dwellers from the state forest makes little ecological impact on the woodland, and does not improve the economic value of the woodland to the state. However, if the Forestry Commission relaxes the current control on in-migration, it is likely that the woodland be rapidly depleted in the face of massive in-migration. Modeling is seen as a framework for integration of ecological and economic issues, but further work is required to incorporate institutional perspectives from the sociological and anthropological disciplines.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter677ZWEcological Economics333Assistance to forestry: what have we learnt?Persson, R2000developmentdevelopment aidforestrydeveloping countriesCopyrighted 2000 by the Commonwealth Forestry Association. Reprinted by permission. More details are available on http://www.cfa-international.org/IFR.htmlAssistance given to forestry, such as official development assistance in general, presents problems. It is well known that commitment and ownership are needed to achieve success. However, projects are still very much donor-driven. The best way to overcome current problems is to support developing countries' own strategies for development in general or in selected sector but such an approach is not very likely. Support for capacity building, research, learning, strengthening of analytical capacity and other 'basics' should then be favoured as a second 'best bet'. The main objective must be to strengthen domestic capacity within developing countries so that they can better appreciate the importance of forestry and take full charge of their own forestry development. Conditions imposed by donors or the pushing of donor agendas do not work in the long run.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/APersson0001.pdfArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter683ZWInternational Forestry Review1465-548932Forestry assistance and tropical deforestation: why the public doesn't get what it pays forKaimowitz, D2000deforestationtropical forestsforestry developmentdevelopment agenciesdevelopment aidnature conservationpolicysectoral planningenvironmental protectionCopyrighted 2000 by the Commonwealth Forestry Association. Reprinted by permission. More details are available on http://www.cfa-international.org/IFR.htmlPopular concern about tropical deforestation largely drove the rapid growth in forestry assistance in recent years. Nevertheless, forestry assistance has had limited impact on forest clearing and much of it has gone to address other problems. To reduce inappropriate deforestation requires a combination of a multi-sectoral approach, greater regulation, and payment for environmental services. Aid officials have been partially unwilling and partially unable to adopt these approaches. They have also been reluctant to clarify public misconceptions about deforestation and to devote their energy to convincing the public to support forestry assistance for purposes other than forest preservation.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/AKaimowitz0001.pdfArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter684ZWInternational Forestry Review1465-548932A conceptual model of woodland use and change in ZimbabweCampbell, B.M.Frost, P.Goebel, A.Standa-Gunda, W.Mukamuri, B.Veenan, M2000changeforest policyinstitutionsland use changeliving conditionsmedicinal plantsmodelsnon-timber forest productsplanningrural communitiessocioeconomicstourismuseswoodlandsThis paper use a conceptual box-and-arrow model for understanding woodland use in Zimbabwe in the context of the complex ecological-social-economic system of which it is part. Central themes within the model are: the policy framework; local institutions; land pressures; rural-urban relationships; the rise in tourism; increasing commercialisation of woodland products; drought; AIDS; and the status of the resource itself. It is suggested that too little attention has been paid to the impacts of policy on woodland use and commercialisation, and that woodland use is seldom seen in the wider context of the entire household livelihood system. Conceptual models represent a tool for understanding the connections between the components of complex systems, but they need to be followed by more detailed simulation modelling, to understand both the dynamics of these systems and the possible outcomes of various interventions in them.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter712ZWInternational Tree Crops Journal410Sustaining incomes from non timber forest products: introduction and synthesisde Jong, W.Campbell, B.M.Schroder, J.M2000incomeinstitutionsnon-timber forest productssustainabilitycopy availableReasons for the decline of people&rsquo;s income from any given non-timber forest product are: over-harvesting of the resource base; capturing of the business by local elite; domestication of the product; decreased demand; or manufacturing of substitutes. In all of these scenarios, income for local collectors is likely to diminish or disappear altogether. This Special Issue of the International Tree Crops Journal brings together a number of studies from Bolivia, Peru, Zimbabwe and Cameroon assessing the sustainability of incomes from non-timber forest products once their commercialisation has already been achieved. The studies conclude that avoiding over-harvesting of a commercially successful forest product will in most cases require some restraints on harvesting, usually through developing rules and regulations at the appropriate level. These institutional arrangements are also needed to avoid exclusive income capturing by powerful elites. Sustained production can also be achieved through intensified management or cultivation. Maintaining market demand requires constant marketing effort, or adjusting the products supplied to different demands. Even so, there is always the possibility that others that provide a higher consumer satisfaction or are produced more efficiently will replace commercially successful forest products. A constant effort is thus needed to develop new products, for which the entire production-marketing may have to be set up.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter715BOInternational Tree Crops Journal410Ecology for tropical forest managementSheil, D.van Heist, M2000biodiversitynature conservationlandscape ecologysilviculturelogging effectsimprovement fellingseducationCopyrighted 2000 by the Commonwealth Forestry Association. Reprinted by permission. More details are available on http://www.cfa-international.org/IFR.htmlThere is a considerable body of ecological information relevant to the management of tropical forests, but in practice, little of this is used. It is demonstrated how ecology helps to understand forests and forest change and argued that there is an urgent need for a wider appreciation and utilisation of current knowledge. Forest managers must take a holistic, long-term landscape-level view, and how change in itself is inevitable. Familiar concerns relating to silviculture and canopy disturbance are considered and then, the neglected biology of tree pollination and seed dispersal and the risks associated with animal loss. Increasing threats from fire, exotic species and habitat fragmentation are identified. Finally, the difficult balance between timber production and conservation related values is discussed. The ecological overview, with its mixture of common sense and more subtle insights, may be translated into beneficial actions. Considerable progress is attainable, but requires collaboration between ecologists and forest managers. Initiatives that seek to reform forest practices in the tropics require a sound ecological basis to better address the many challenges facing modern forestry in these regions - such a basis is, in large part, already available for wider use. Illustrations are given as to how management may be improved. Fundamental to these is the recognition that ecological knowledge is crucial to forestry but currently too often ignored, and that considerable and rapid progress is possible if ecologists, foresters and others can find ways to work together and address this directly.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/ASheil0001.pdfArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter733BOInternational Forestry Review42Methods for estimating forest income and their challengesWollenberg, E2000case studiesforest productshouseholdsincomemethodologyrural communitiesCopy availableIncome measures are increasingly used as an indicator of the well-being of forest villagers, their use of forest products, and even the value of a forest. The methods for estimating income are often underreported, however, and little analysis is available of the methods required to measure income. Ten case studies are examined to demonstrate methods in use for quantifying household income. The cases are used to investigate techniques for overcoming two common methodological obstacles: (1) the cost of collecting data about many, diverse and distant sources of income from the forest, and (2) the difficulty of aggregating the monetary values of products. The strengths and weaknesses of the techniques are discussed to help researchers identify methods appropriate to their needs. The article concludes that: (1) costs are most effectively reduced where the number of products studied is limited and methods based on indirect observation are used; (2) aggregating the monetary value of a mix of market and subsistence products requires sensitivity to the limitations of the methods; and (3) addressing the diversity of values that forest products provide to people might provide a more accurate estimation of income.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter736BOSociety and Natural Resources813Long-term permanent plot observations of vegetation dynamics in Budongo, a Ugandan rain forestSheil, D.Jennings, S.Savill, P2000forest treesspeciescompositiondeciduous forestsmonitoringsuccessionCopy AvailableSpecies composition and turnover in a series of' permanent sample plots established during the 1930s and 1940s in Budongo, a semi-deciduous Ugandan forest, are reported. The plots were established as part of' a sequence first used to describe forest succession, five of' which have been maintained. One plot provides 53 years of data from old-growth pristine forest, another established in wooded grassland at the forest edge is now closed high forest. Evaluation of the remaining three plots is complicated by silvicultural interventions in the 1950s. Forty species have been added since the first evaluations and 188 tree species (over 80%, of' Budongo's forest tree flora) have now been recorded. In the original plot series there is an increasing proportion of shade-tolerant species with development, and large stems appearing to 'lag behind' smaller stems in this respect. The time series data are less consistent, and while the proportion of shade-tolerant stems increased through time in the pristine forest plot, the proportion of shade-tolerant species declined. Most species have a higher recruitment than mortality rate and stem numbers increased in all plots. This is most pronounced in the putatively 'early successional&rsquo; plot. Stem size structure has changed within the plots, with an increased proportion of smaller stems. Species show different rates of turnover and these vary, from plot to plot and period to period. It is estimated that some tree species will live longer than 500 years after reaching 10 cm diameter (bh), and 1000 years is possible. The importance of large trees in determining forest dynamics is illustrated by the finding that death of only seven stems in the pristine forest plot contributed over 60% of net basal area losses over the 53 years. Many patterns observed were not predicted, showing the importance of long-term studies.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter740BOJournal of Tropical Ecology616Shifts in forest product extraction: the post-rubber era in the Bolivian AmazonStoian, D2000brazil nutsloggingmarketsnon-timber forest productsrubberEuterpe precatoria*Study supported by CIFORCommercial exploitation of non-timber forest products has been playing a major role in the northern Bolivian Amazon for more than a century. Initially relying on the exploitation of rubber, the regional economy underwent a first diversification as a consequence of the post-World War I rubber crisis: rubber tapping became supplemented with subsistence agriculture and Brazil nut extraction. This mode of making one's living prevailed in the region for several decades until Bolivian rubber trade came to a standstill in the early 1990s. The recent rubber crisis called again for substantial modifications of the regional economy. This paper examines the conversion from a rubber-based economy into production modes making broader use of forest resources. A village-level survey conducted in 163 rural settlements gave evidence that increased commercialisation of Brazil nuts, palm hearts and timber largely offset progressively lower income from rubber exploitation. In addition is likely to exceed natural regeneration rates, and therefore socio-economic needs and ecological requirements are yet to be reconciled in the post-rubber era of the northern Bolivian Amazon.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter751BOInternational Tree Crops Journal410Between extractivism and peasant agriculture: differentiation of rural settlements in the Bolivian AmazonStoian, D.Henkemans, A2000brazil nutsnon-timber forest productspeasantryrubbersettlementrural urban migration*Study supported by CIFORThe economy of the northern Bolivian Amazon has historically been based on rubber and other non-timber forest products (NTFPs). In the late 19th century, the upcoming rubber boom lead to the establishment of rubber estates. Following World War I, a first rubber crisis forced some estate owners to abandon their land, favouring the emergence of independent communities. A second rubber crisis after World War II, along with the Agrarian Reform in 1953, accelerated the disintegration of rubber estates and the foundation of independent communities. In the early 1990s, the conclusive halt of Bolivian rubber production fuelled rural-urban migration and the differentiation of rural settlements. This paper examines the evolution from pure rubber estates to a wide array of settlement types. A settlement typology distinguishes four types of estates and six types of independent communities with varying trade-offs between extractivism and peasant agriculture. The findings have important implications for NFTP-based development. First, extraction-based livelihoods are socially acceptable only when access to basic services, such as schooling, health care, and transportation, is ensured. Second, in the region's remote areas the supply of such services needs to rely on a forest concession system within which the private sector bears the required investments. Finally, indigenous communities participating in NTFP trade need to demarcate their sphere in between the remote forest concessions and the non-tribal peasantry in the vicinity of town.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter752BOInternational Tree Crops Journal410Considering the impact of structural adjustment policies on forests in Bolivia, Cameroon and IndonesiaKaimowitz, D.Erwidodo.Ndoye, O.Pacheco, P.Balanza, P.P.Sunderlin, W.D1998deforestationpolicystructural adjustmentimpactA preliminary insight into how structural adjustment policies (SAPs) may have affected deforestation and forest degradation in the lowland tropical forests of Bolivia, Cameroon and Indonesia. It presents tentative hypotheses regarding how changes in prices, costs, incomes and government services associated with SAPs affect forests. The indirect effects of SAP's on forests resulting from changes in overall economic growth, inflation rates, employment and consumption are difficult to measure and predict. The experience of Cameroon and Indonesia indicate that SAPs that sucees in creating new off-farm employment opportunities probably reduce deforestation, while those that do not succeed have the opposite effect, but this is still inconclusive. There is little evidence that government spending restrictions associated with SAPs diminished governments' ability to promote sustainable forest management or control deforestation, largerly because there was minimal capacity in the first place. It remains to be seen whether SAPs will favour or hinder the development of such capacity in the future.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter432CMUnasylva19449Harnessing carbon markets for tropical forest conservation: towards a more realistic assessmentSmith, J.Mulongoy, K.Persson, R.Sayer, J.A2000carbonclean development mechanismnature conservationprojectstropical forestsforest conservationsustainabilityclimatic changeThe proposed Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol paves the way for financial and technological transfers to support forestry projects that sequester carbon or protect carbon stocks. This paper examines the implications of CDM for forest conservation and sustainable use by drawing on recent literature and results of a Policy Dialogue with CDM stakeholders. Initial estimates of the contribution tropical forestry could make to climate change mitigation and forest conservation need to be scaled down and CDM payments are likely to be far more limited. The cost-effectiveness of forestry projects relative to projects in the energy sector may have been overestimated. Few estimates acknowledge that forests are unlikely to be conserved as long as the residency time of carbon in the atmosphere. Also political realities and investor priorities may not have been sufficiently understood. CDM funding for forestry may also decline as economically viable clean technologies are developed in the energy sector. Tropical forests provide an intermediate strategy to buy time until more permanent options are available. The most important justification for including forests in CDM may lie in its potential contribution to forest conservation and sustainable use. It is important to involve forest stakeholders more closely in the CDM debate. CDM projects may need to be limited to niches meeting certain political and institutional preconditions and where sufficient understanding of local decision-making and the broader context is available. There are pitfalls in using CDM to subsidise unprofitable forestry activities. The dangers of misusing CDM in relation to plantations, natural forest management and non-timber forest products are illustrated and examples given examples of how CDM could be harnessed for better use of forests. CDM is not a solution to the tropical forestry problem, but is a tool for enhancing forest conservation and sustainable use.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter552CMEnvironmental Conservation327Why do farmers expand their land into forests?: theories and evidence form TanzaniaAngelsen, A.Shitindi, Eric F. Katemansimba, Aarrestad, Johnstein1999agriculturedeforestationincomeland usemarketsTanzaniahuman populationThis paper examines the causes of agricultural land expansion and deforetstion in Tanzania. In the theoretical section, two different -- and partly contradicting -- sets of hypotheses are outlined. These are based on a subsistence approach, emphasising the food or income requirements of farm household, and a market approach, focussing on the relative profitability of agriculture. The statistical analysis shows that increased agricultural output prices, in particular for annual crops, is a major factor behind agricultural expansion. An increase of 1 per cent output prices leads to about 1 per cent increase in agricultural area. Other factors such as input prices, technology and economic growth are tested and discussed, but the conclusions are less robust. The controversial role of population growth in expalining deforestation is addressed. Generally the results lend support to the market rather than the subsistence approach.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter567CMEnvironment and Development Economics4Deforestation of woodlands in communal areas of Zimbabwe: is it due to agricultural policies?Chipika, J.T.Kowero, G2000deforestationland usewoodlandscrop productionagricultural policycottonmaizesunflowerspricesDeforestation and woodland degradation are issues of great concern in Zimbabwe. Debate on these issues has identified a number of causes including expansion of arable land, demand for fuel-wood and construction poles, and urban expansion. This paper examined how some policies aimed at improving agricultural production may be contributing to deforestation of woodlands in the communal and resettlement areas of Zimbabwe. Consideration was given to crops with appreciable land area in 1980-90; maize (Zea mays L.), cotton (Gosspium hirsutum L.) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Regression analysis indicated that policies that improved marketing of grains, provision of credit (largely in form of farm inputs) and extension services, encouraged expansion of land under maize and less so under cotton. High nominal prices encouraged expansion of area under maize while decreasing real prices of cotton, if not reserved, had potential for reducing land under cotton. Increased fertiliser prices, through removal of subsidies as required by structural adjustment policies, had potential for reducing land under maize and sunflower. The driving force for sunflower and cotton production was partly based on the desire, by farmers, for non-declining revenues in successive years. During the same period, real producer prices for these crops were declining and demand for cash was increasing rapidly. The evaluated agricultural policies may have been responsible for moderate expansion of land area under maize but more significant expansion of land under cotton and sunflower. These policies could have encouraged modest deforestation of woodlands in the Zimbabwean communal and resettlement areas in the period 1980-1995.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter632ZWAgriculture, Ecosystems and Environment79The influence of mineral exports on the variability of tropical deforestationSunderlin, W.D.Wunder, S2000deforestationtrademineralseconomic analysiscopy availablePrevious studies of deforestation have focused on agriculture, population and migration, timber exploitation, macroeconomic policies and geographic factors to explain the variability of deforestation rates among countries. This study tests the hypothesis that countries with a high proportion of petroleum or non-petroleum mineral exports in total exports experience a relatively low deforestation rate because of macroeconomic 'Dutch disease' effects. Bivariate and multivariate analyses provide preliminary support for the hypothesis, although giving little insight on how precisely mineral exports might exert their influence on forest cover. One reason for the limited utility of these methodologies is that they do not adequately explain the various effects of mineral windfalls that go beyond the Dutch disease's 'core model'. Future research must attempt to understand these effects, which include: levels of funding for agriculture, roads, and directed settlement; agricultural protectionism; levels of rural poverty, urbanisation, and consumer demand; the site-level effects of mineral extraction; and the variability of state autonomy.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter634ZWEnvironment and Development Economics5Why poor logging practices persist in the tropicsPutz, F.E.Dykstra, D.P.Heinrich, R2000tropical forestslogging effectsimprovement fellingsreductioneconomicscopy availableDespite abundant evidence that both the environment damage and the financial costs of logging can be reduced substantially by training workers, pre-planning skid trails, practicing directional felling, and carrying out a variety of other well-known forestry practices, destructive logging is still common in the tropics. Based on collective experience with loggers in tropical forests, seven possible reasons for this seemingly irrational behaviour are discussed. The principal reason for poor logging practices is apparently that the widely heralded cost savings associated with reduced-impact logging relative to unplanned logging by un-trained crews may not be realised under some conditions. In particular, where compliance with logging guidelines restricts access to steep slopes or prohibits ground-based timber yarding on wet ground, reduced-impact logging may be synonymous with reduced-income logging. Given that under such conditions loggers may not adopt reduced-impact logging methods out of self-interest, fiscal mechanisms for promoting sustainable forest management may be needed.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter635ZWConservation Biology0888-8892414Seed and seedling ecology of tree species in neotropical secondary forests: management implicationsGuariguata, M.R2000forest treessecondary forestsforest managementcopy availableInter-specific patterns of seed longevity in the soil, germination, and survival and growth of transplanted seedlings under closed canopy of nine trees, Cordia alliodora, Hampea appendiculata, Jacaranda copaia, Laetia procera, Rollinia microsepala, Simarouba amara, Stryphnodendron microstachyum, Trichospermum grewiifolium and Vochysia ferruginea, common in secondary forest stands in wet, lowland Costa Rica, are described. Longevity of experimental seed cohorts differed markedly among species, from <3 mo (Cordia, Hampea, Simarouba, Vochysia), to >1 yr (Stryphnodendron). Similarly, germination of recently dispersed seeds in the understorey ranged from 0% in Laetia to >75% in Cordia and Vochysia. In contrast, seedling survival was uniformly low (<10% survival one year after transplanting except for Stryphnodendron, which showed ~ 20% survival). Implications of these findings for the management of secondary forest stands for timber production vary. All the species require nearly complete canopy opening to regenerate. Some species germinate well in the shade and can be managed at the seedlings stage by opening up the canopy a few months after germination (e.g., Cordia, Simarouba, Vochysia). Species showing little or no germination under closed canopy (e.g., Jacaranda, Laetia, Rollinia) need canopy removal to germinate adequately. Any canopy manipulation must be performed within 6 months. Site preparation may be necessary to control herbs and shrubs. The study results suggest that ecological classifications of trees solely based on light preferences for stem growth may fail to account for important differences among species in their regeneration mode. This is of particular importance for refining silvicultural guidelines in neo-tropical secondary forests.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter636CREcological Applications110Economic crisis, farming systems, and forest cover change in the humid forest zone of CameroonSunderlin, W.D.Ndoye, O.Bikie, H2000deforestationeconomic crisesfarming systemsfood Cropsgender relationsmarketsmigrationCopyrighted 2000 by the Commonwealth Forestry Association. Reprinted by permission. More details are available on http://www.cfa-international.org/IFR.htmlThe rate of forest clearing by small farmers in the humid forest zone (HFZ) of Cameroon increased significantly in a period of economic crisis dating from 1986. A random sample survey of 648 households was conducted in 54 villages in the HFZ to understand the effect of the crisis and of a 1996 currency devaluation on the practices of small farmers, and the effect of these practices on forest cover change. Three hypotheses were tested: (1) the balance between export crop and food crop production; (2) the degree of market-orientation of food crop production; and (3) the gender division of labour. The key results are: (1) the area of cocoa production has stagnated while that of coffee, plantain and other food crops has tended to increase; (2) food crop production is now more market-oriented; and (3) more men are now far more involved in food crop production than in the past. The results corroborate other studies showing that increased deforestation in the HFZ is largely a product of these three factors and also of: increased rural population, partly resulting from urban-rural migration; decline of food imports and corresponding increase in food crop production; decreased government subsidies for agricultural inputs; and increased logging. The study concludes that: (1) macroeconomic instability can lead to unforeseen and grave consequences not only for the well-being of farmers but also for efforts to protect remaining tropical forests: and (2) crop diversification might be one way to help avert future income shocks to farmers and minimise forest clearing activity.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/ASunderlin0001.pdfArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter657CMInternational Forestry Review32Economic crisis, small-scale agriculture, and forest cover change in Southern CameroonSunderlin, W.D.Ndoye, O.Bikie, H.Laporte, N.Mertens, B.Pokam, J2000agriculturechangedeforestationeconomic criseshousehold surveyspolicystructural adjustmentThe rate of forest cover loss in the humid tropics of Cameroon is one of the highest in Central Africa. The aim of the large-scale, two-year research project described here was to understand the effect of the country's economic crisis and policy change on small-scale agricultural systems and land-clearing practices. Hypotheses were tested through surveys of more than 5000 households in 125 villages, and through time-series remote sensing analysis at two sites. The principal findings are: (1) the rate of deforestation increased significantly in the decade after the 1986 onset of the crisis, as compared to the decade prior to the crisis; (2) the main proximate causes of this change were sudden rural population growth and a shift from production of cocoa and coffee to plantain and other food crops; and (3) the main underlying causes were macroeconomic shocks and structural adjustment policies that led to rural population growth and farming system changes. The implication of this study is that it is necessary to understand and anticipate the undesirable consequences of macroeconomic shocks and adjustment policies for forest cover. Such policies, even though they are often not formulated with natural resource consequences in mind, are often of greater relevance to the fate of forests than forest policyArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter658CMEnvironmental Conservation327The economics of home grown forestryPutz, F.E2000costscommunity forestryforest products industriessilvicultureforest productsyield increasesnature conservationcopy availableCosts of applying silvicultural treatments prescribed to increase yields of timber and non-timber forest products from natural forests should be calculated differently for industrial logging companies, private non-industrial forest owners, and community based forest management operations. For forest owners who are not concerned solely with maximising short-term profits from their forests, the opportunity costs of forest labour are often lower than official minimum wages. Furthermore, for forest owners who do not have ready access to interest accruing savings mechanisms or where bank solvency is in question, the opportunity costs of waiting for long rotation forest crops to mature may not be as high as public interest rates would suggest. Both the true costs of management and the multitude of marketed and non-marketed benefits from well-managed natural forests need to be considered when assessing forestry as one component of a diverse portfolio of conservation options.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter689CMEcological Economics32Tropical forest biodiversity and the world heritage conventionSayer, J.A.Ishwaran, N.Thorsell, J.Sigaty, T2000biodiversityrain foreststropical forestsinternational agreementsconservationprotected areasCopy availableThe World Heritage Convention has been ratified by 158 countries and provides an international legal regime for the conservation of sites of global, cultural or natural value. There are 33 tropical forest sites listed under the convention, mainly for their global biodiversity value. They constitute an elite set of biodiversity sites covering approximately 2.5% of the world&rsquo;s closed tropical forests and making a significant contribution to the conservation of the world&rsquo;s terrestrial biodiversity. A range of international initiatives will eventually provide a framework for better conservation and sustainable management of forests worldwide, but the World Heritage Convention provides an existing mechanism, which could quickly be mobilised to safeguard the most important forests. In the past, sites were selected for listing under the convention if they were perceived to have minimal human impact. However, all forests are modified by humans but that modification need not be inconsistent with the maintenance of global biodiversity values. The Convention could have greater impact if it addressed more directly the reality of the ubiquitous human modification of forests. This could be achieved through use of more adaptive forms of management based on objective criteria and indicators to define tolerance of change and trigger management responses to achieve desired biodiversity outcomes. It is concluded that an optimal list of world heritage tropical forest sites might include up to 100 sites or clusters of sites and that such a network of sites could effectively protect a high proportion of the world&rsquo;s forest biodiversity. The present rate of attrition of the world&rsquo;s tropical forests suggests the need for urgent international action to focus on a set of priority sites and the World Heritage Conservation could provide the best international framework for such action.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter701CMAmbio0044-7447629Caracterizacion del uso de la tierra y bosques secundarios en la llanura aluvial inundable de la zona Muyuy-Iquitos, Amazonia PeruanaFreitas-Alvarado, L.Baluarte-Vasquez, J.van de Kop, P.Inga-Sanchez, H.de Jong, W.Melendez, W.Salazar-Vega, A2000socioeconomicssecondary forestsfallowfloodplainsland usesilvicultural conversionsoil fertilitydecision makingResults based on a socioeconomic survey on flood plain forest fallows are presented. The study was aimed at identifying the factors influencing people's decisions on land use and forest resource utilisation, and to provide some preliminary biophysical information. It was found that 93% of local landholders predominantly use low "restinga" sites, and that the major reason for forest fallows is to recover soil fertility. Furthermore, forest conversion and re-conversion processes are a function of community age and parcel size. Over 50% of landholders manage their forest fallows mainly to encourage two tree species: Calycophyllum spruceanum (capiro na) and Cedrela odorata (cedro). The results of this study are encouraging to promote local forests fallows management plans.ArticlesptCIFOR Head Quarter718CMRevista Forestal del Peru0556-65921-223Ecotourism and economic incentives: an empirical approachWunder, S2000nature tourismincentivesincomeprotected areasnature conservationcommunity developmentparticipationWithin the new array of 'green' products and services, ecotourism claims to combine environmental responsibility with the generation of local economic benefits that will have both a development impact and serve as conservation incentives. Economic incentives are imperative for nature conservation, particularly in remote and ill-monitored regions where a weak state presence hinders the use of alternative tools of environmental regulation. In the following, the link between tourism, local benefits and conservation is conceptualised and analysed empirically, using data from the Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve in the Ecuadorian Amazon region, near the border of Colombia and Peru. Three Cuyabeno indigenous groups have developed different modes of tourism participation, ranging from autonomous operations to pure salary employment. A quantification of local cash flows from tourism allows for a comparative analysis of income structure, spending, and the impacts on local development and on conservation attitudes. It is concluded that in the whole study area, tourism has actually provided significant additional income. Counter to common belief, the mode of participation is less decisive for local income generation than the tourist attraction of the natural site, the degree of tourism specialisation and the level of local organisation. However, as a conservation incentive, the effectiveness of tourism income depends on the incentive structure inherent in the mode participation, and on the substitution versus complementary of other productive activities: only if tourism changes labour and land allocation decisions, will it have a local conservation impact. It is discussed under which circumstances the conjectured link between tourism, local incomes and conservation is likely to be effective. This leads to some general lessons for government policies, for the design of integrated conservation and development projects, and to a number of site-specific recommendations for improving incentive structures.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter841ECEcological Economics0921-8009332Some roles for north american ecologists in land-use planning in the tropicsPutz, F.E2000land useplanningtropicsecologistsArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter947ECEcological Applications110Establishment of biochemical genetic markers techniques for Shorea spp.- tropical forest tree speciesSudarmonowati, E.Hartarti, N.S.Siregar, U.J1997Shoreaforest treesgenetic markersspeciesTwo types of materials, six compositions of extractions buffer and three electrophoretic buffer system were studied to establish optimum procedures for obtaining good resolution of 14 enzyme systems in 12 species of Shorea which belongs to the family of Dipterocarpaceace. Thirteen (13) enzyme systems could be detected in S.seminis and S.parvifolia, 10 of that in S. laevis, S.leprosula, S.selanica, S.aquminata, S.gibbosa, S.palembanica, and S.pauciflora, 7 of that in S.paquetiana and 4 of that in S.johorensis. The use of W extraction buffer in combination with the use of MC electrophoretic buffer systems led to the best results of using twigs were almost the same as leaves, better resolution of certain enzyme system such as PER, PGI, SDH, and MDH was obtained from leaves. Results obtained from this study would benefit further study on various aspects such as genetic diversity assessment of Shorea species and genetic improvement.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter384ECAnnales Bogorienses15Economic comparisons of livestock production in communal grazing lands in ZimbabweCampbell, B.M.Dore, D.Luckert, M.Mukamuri, B.Gambiza, J2000costsenvironmentmodelscapitalcattlerangelandsstocking ratecopy availableDuring the decade a 'new rangeland science' has emerged. One of the tenets of this science is that pastoralists should not adhere to a single conservative stocking rate but rather, adopt an opportunistic strategy where numbers will fluctuate widely in response to good and bad seasons. It is further argued that opportunistic strategies give higher economic returns compared to strategies based on conservative stocking rates. In this paper the economics of four cattle management scenarios are compared. The analysis is based on a simulation model of the fluctuation over time of animal numbers, outputs and prices, using data from filed surveys and the literature. Results suggest that strategies based on conservative stocking rates would have higher net present values than strategies based on opportunistic stocking rates. Previous analyses have failed to account for losses due to drought and the costs of capital in livestock, and have tended to compare commercial with communal production rather than considering different smallholder production methods. To obtain the full benefits of destocking, however, a decision to destock must be made at the level of the community, as the benefits of improved outputs can only be achieved if the stocking rates of the communal grazing lands are reduced. Collective decisions about managing numbers incur considerable transaction costs, and so the emergence of new institutions is less likely. It is surprising that a tight tracking scenario (where cattle are managed by purchasing and selling to maintain numbers in equilibrium with the available feed resources) is recommended in recent literature as the results of this study suggest that such a system would incur considerable economic losses. The costs of a current programme to reclaim small dams illustrate the environmental costs of the opportunistic scenario. A tight tracking policy is likely to increase environmental degradation and its associated costs. Several serious flaws in papers that elevate opportunistic pastoral systems as giving higher economic returns are identified.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter678ECEcological Economics333Impact of macroeconomic change on deforestation in South Cameroon: integration of household survey and remotely-sensed dataMertens, B.Sunderlin, W.D.Ndoye, O.Lambin, E.F2000macroeconomicsland usechangedeforestationeconomic criseshousehold surveysremote sensingIntegration of information from household surveys and data on land-cover changes derived from remote sensing helps to understand the causes and processes of land-use/land-cover changes. A household survey covering 552 households in 33 villages was carried out in the East Province of Cameroon. This survey focused on land-use changes since the 1970s. Data were related to time series of remote sensing satellite data. A major interest of the filed data lies in the longitudinal framework of survey. It highlighted the evolution of the household and its land-use over three periods related to the key of macroeconomic periods, and corresponding to the dates of acquisition of the remote sensing data. The research results demonstrate that macroeconomic changes affecting Cameroon have played a fundamental role in the way land-use practices influence the forest cover. The results show that the annual rate of deforestation increased after the economic crisis as compared to the previous period. The household survey information enables identification of the casual relationships and the processes of land-use and land-cover changes. Observations reveal that the beginning of the economic crisis (1986) is associated in time with a strong increase of the deforestation rate related to population growth, increased marketing of food crops, modification of farming systems, and colonisation of new agricultural areas in remote forest zones.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter615CMWorld Development0305-750X628Evaluacion preliminar de la produccion de latex de Croton draconoides M. Arg. en bosques secundarios de la provincia de Padre Abad-UcayaliAtanacio Venturo, N.Dominguez Torrejon, G2000evaluationlatexCroton Draconoidesproductionproduction costsforest treeswatershedsA qualitative evaluation of a &lsquo;sangre de grado&rsquo; tree population along the Aguaytia watershed determined its abundance and latex production potential. Also, the flora species composition of the 9 year-old secondary forests was outlined. By collecting botanic samples, the species Croton draconoides was identified and its latex productions measured using two different techniques. In both cases, the production volumes were directly related to the d.b.h. measures. There were no statistically significant differences between the two latex extraction techniques. A production cost structure for one hundred &lsquo;sangre de grado&rsquo; trees was defined and the projected income for the next five years estimated.ArticlesptCIFOR Head Quarter844CMRevista Forestal del Peru0556-65921-223Dinamica del bosque secundario en agricultura de tumba y quema: interacciones entre tipos de uso dela tierra en la Amazonia peruanaSmith, J.van de Kop, P.Reategui, K.Lombardi, I.Sabogal, C.Diaz, A2000secondary forestsregenerationshifting cultivationsmall farmssocial welfarepolicyThe regeneration of secondary forests (SF) is a promising development within the generally pessimistic scenario of tropical deforestation. The objective of this paper was to document the regeneration of SF in slash and burn agriculture and to develop policy and technological recommendations for conserving forest cover on small farms and improve farmer welfare. Results confirmed that substantial areas of SF exist on slash and burn farms during the first few decades after settlement. As a result, over a third of the farm area is under the forest cover. This implies that deforestation in slash and burn farming may be less than previously believed. Soil recuperation is the most important reason for the existence of SF in slash and burn agriculture. The conclusion is that improved short-rotation fallows may recuperate the soil at the expense of forest cover, particularly in areas where most forest cover consists of SF.ArticlesptCIFOR Head Quarter845CMRevista Forestal del Peru0556-65921-223Gobiernos municipales y bosques en las tierras bajas de BoliviaKaimowitz, D.Pacheco, P.Johnson, J.Pavez, I.Vallejos, C.Velez, R2000case studiesdecentralizationlocal governmentpolicyforest resourcesrural communitiesforest products industriesconstraintsHaving analysed the decentralisation policies of the Bolivian government and the recent transfer of responsibilities to the municipalities with regard to forest management, four case studies are described: Ascension de Guarayos, Rurrenabaque, Villa Tunari y San Ignacio de Velasco. The results show that although decentralisation has opened new possibilities for previously marginalised groups, those groups have not taken sufficient advantage of it. The studies also reveal that small-scale forest industries have not taken advantage of potentially better access to forest resources offered by the municipalities, due to institutional, technical and organisational impediments. The ability of municipal governments to deal with forest issues continues to be limited despite their interest in sustainable forest management. It is unlikely that in the near future the municipalities will contribute to the reduction of deforestation, better permitting procedures or the development of small-scale forest industries.ArticlesesCIFOR Head Quarter847BOCiencias Ambientales19Land use options in dry tropical woodland ecosystems in Zimbabwe: Introduction, overview and synthesisCampbell, B.M.Costanza, R.van den Belt, M2000land usewoodlandseconomicsecologylivestock farmingmigrationinterdisciplinary researchmodelsThis article focuses on the ecological and economic interactions of woodland use in Western Zimbabwe. One of the aims was to investigate the use of modelling to achieve integration among disciplines. The integrated model draws on the models in the different papers in this issue of the journal. The model has five ecological sectors: all five sectors cover woodland use by local people and the state forestry organisation, two sectors agriculture, one sector population growth and land use, one sector carbon sequestration, and one sector to calculate net present values of the various uses. The state has usually attempted to keep people and their livestock out of the forest. It is shown that private benefits of cropland may be greater than those related to state or local use of the woodland, but further work is required to incorporate the public costs of subsidies to cropland, and the public benefits of woodland services. Livestock production in the woodlands is compatible with woodland management, both from economic and ecological perspectives. Expulsion of forest dwellers from the state forest makes little ecological impact on the woodland, and does not improve the economic value of the woodland to the state. However, if the Forestry Commission relaxes the current control on in-migration, it is likely that the woodland be rapidly depleted in the face of massive in-migration. Modelling is seen as a framework for integration of ecological and economic issues, but further work is required to incorporate institutional perspectives from the sociological and anthropological disciplines.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter850ZWEcological Economics0921-8009333Impacto de los patrones de uso de la tierra sobre los bosques secundarios dela zona de Pucallpa, PeruAlva Vasques, I.J.Ignasio Lombardi, I2000fallowsecondary forestsdegraded forestsland usepolicyincentivesagriculturericecassavaLlivestock FarmingIn this study forest fallows (locally known as &lsquo;purmas&rsquo;) are classified and described in three categories: natural fallow succession (PS), degrading fallow vegetation (PD) and fallow dominated by kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides) (PK). The study area of Semuya has 83% under PS, and the area of Nueva Requena 25% and 20.5% of fallows belonging to PD and PK, respectively. Around 70% of surveyed fallows are less than 4 years old. The impact of land use patterns on secondary vegetation was expressed in changes in the floristic composition and the potential use of the forest fallows. In Nueva Requena, where a larger land area covered by degrading fallow vegetation was found, annual crops, mainly rice and cassava, were the dominant land use pattern. It is concluded that external conditioning factors, such as incentive policies for agriculture, social unrest and livestock expansion, contributed to the accelerated degradation of secondary vegetation in the zone.ArticlesptCIFOR Head Quarter842ZWRevista Forestal del Peru0556-65921-223Evaluacion fitosociologica y etnobotanica de un bosque secundario cerca de Pucalipa- Ucayali, Amazonz peruanaSanchez, J.G.Jacquez Tournon2000secondary forestsforest inventoriestreesspeciesethnobotanysurveysA study was carried out in a 20 year-old secondary forest situated on the campus of the University of Ucayali, 4 km from the city of Pucallpa, Peruvian Amazon. Botanical and ethno-botanical inventories were made of all trees greater than 10 cm dbh growing on an half hectare plot on very demineralised and acid soil. One hundred and ninety two trees were counted belonging to 22 families and 33 species. The dominant families were (in order of abundance): Euphorbiaceae, Melastornataceae, Leguminosae, Apocynaceae, Combretaceae and Guttiferae. At the species level the following pioneer, fast growing species were most abundant: Croton matourensis, Inga thibaudiana, Miconja eriocalyx, Vismia amazonica and Buchenavia oxycarpa. The total basal area measured was 70 448 cm2. The ethno-botanical survey was made with two informants of the shipibo conibo ethnic group who named 70% of the tree species. One individual knew one or several uses for 66% of the species and the other 73 % of the species.ArticlesptCIFOR Head Quarter843ZWRevista Forestal del Peru0556-65921-223Potencial productivo de los bosques secundarios de aitura de la zona de Pucalipa, Region Ucayali, Amazonia peruanaGalvan Gildemeister, O.Sabogal, C.Colan, V2000secondary forestsforest treesGuazumausesTwenty nine secondary forest stands with ages over four years were studied near Pucalipa in the Peruvian Amazon. Altogether 102 plant species 10 + cm dbh were recorded in the forest inventories. The most frequent species use group was timber, both in terms of number of species as well as abundance, being thus the main production objective for secondary forest management. Guazuma crinita (bolaina blanca), a tree species commercially used in construction housing, was the most important in secondary forest stands over 10 years old. The production potential of the secondary forest stands studied lies above all in the high number of social and economic useful timber and non-timber forest species, both for home consumption and for local trade.ArticlesptCIFOR Head Quarter846ZWRevista Forestal del Peru0556-65921-223Diameter growth of few African rainforest speciesDurrieu de Madron, L.Nasi, R.Detienne, P2000rain forestsgrowth ringsforest treesAlso available in French entitle: Accroissements diametriques de quelques essences en foret dense AfricaineThis paper summarises the results of a study on the growth of 17 timber species that are commonly logged in African rainforest areas: aningre (Aningeria altissima), obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon), bosse clair (Guarea cedrata), dabema (Piptadeniastrum africanum), dibetou (Lovoa trichilioides), iroko (Milicia excelsa), kosipo (Entandrophragma candollei), kotibe (Nesogordonia papaverifera), limba (Terminalia superba), longhi (Gambeya boukokoensis), moabi (Baillonella toxisperma), niangon (Heritiera utilis), okoume (Aucoumea klaineana), sapelli (Entandrophragma cylindricum), sipo (Entandrophragma utile), tali (Erythrophleum ivorense) and tiama (Entandrophragma angolense). The data are compared with the results of growth ring analyses carried out in Cameroon, the Central African Republic and Gabon. The data were collected in a series of sampling trips to measure trunk girths in tree plots (Cote d'Ivoire, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Ghana and Gabon). They will provide a basis for calculating rotations between potential successive logging operations within the framework of forest development projects.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter660ZWBois et Forets des Tropiques0006-579X1263El bosque secundario de la llanura aluvial inundable en la zona de Jenaro Herrera, Amazonia Peruana: uso, manejo y contribucion a la economia del poblador riberenoBaluarte-Vasquez, J.Freitas Alvarado, L.van de Kop, P.de Jong, W.Inga-Sanchez, H.Melendez Torres, W2000fallowhousehold surveyssocioeconomicssecondary forestsfloodplainslocal populationSecondary forests in the flood plains are important from the ecological, social and economical point of view. In this paper the management of these areas and their contribution to the economy of riverine communities in the Jenaro Herrera district is presented. A total of 108 families in 12 communities located in the flood plains about Jenaro Herrera were interviewed. Eighty six percent of the land holders had their cropping areas located in the physiographic unit &lsquo;restinqa&rsquo;, particularly in the new communities. Existing secondary forest fallows (locally called &lsquo;purmas&rsquo;) in the flood plains were part of the cropping rotation cycle. Forty eight percent of the interviewed people were carrying out some management in their forest fallows, this being more intense in the &lsquo;high restinga&rsquo;. Species under silvicultural treatment were mainly Cedrela odorato (cedro) and Calicophyllum pruceanum (capiroria negra). Flood plain fallows provide around 7% of natural resources extracted in the zone, whereas fruits are the highest contribution in the total value of products.ArticlesptCIFOR Head Quarter717ZWRevista Forestal del Peru0556-65921-223Traditional wisdom meets artificial intelligenceHaggith, M.Colfer, C.J.P1999decision makingmodelscomputer simulationsimulation modelsdecision makingethnic groupscommunity forestryrural communitiesland usemultiple usetropical foreststraditional societyThis short article describes an unlikely, but fruitful, collaboration between an anthropologist and an Artificial Intelligence researcher, the purpose of which was to build a model of how indigenous Dayak people in Kalimantan decide on their activities in the forest. The approach and the results are described. The simple model developed used relations and logic to capture some of the Dayak decision-making processes. The model used Prolog programming language. In building the model, an exploration was made of how opportunities for giving and receiving favours might form an alternative to conventional methods of modelling choices between actions, such as economic optimization.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter612IDAgroforestry Forum39Using scenarios to make decisions about the future: anticipatory learning for the adaptive co-management of community forestsWollenberg, E.Edmunds, D.Buck, L2000changecommunity involvementcommunity forestrycooperationdecision makinglandscapeforest managementnational parksresource managementmethodologyCurrent trends to improve the adaptiveness of community forest management focus on monitoring past actions and emphasise internal dynamics. Scenario methods can be used to: (1) enable managers to better understand landscape and larger scale forces for change and to work with stakeholders at these levels; and (2) improve adaptiveness not only by responding to changes, but also by anticipating them. Methods related to scenario analysis are reviewed and there is discussion on how they can be adapted to community management settings to improve the responsiveness and the collaboration among stakeholders. This review is used to identify the key elements of scenario methods that CIFOR will test among communities in Bulungan Regency, East Kalimantan, Indonesia and two villages in the buffer zone of Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter611IDLandscape and Urban Planning1/247Healthy forests: sound economics, social justiceVanclay, J.K.Prabhu, R1998forestsforest policysocioeconomicsinformation needstrainingThe paper outlines some of the key issues relating to the maintenance of 'healthy forests' in the tropics. It examines the concept of sustainable forestry and its corollary the destruction or degradation of forests, before moving on to discuss some of the challenges faced by the international community in trying to halt the destruction of tropical forests. The role of improved training and education, development of international standards for forest management and the reform of the forest management process and policy are discussed in this respect. The paper concludes that a more effective use of existing information is the first step and calls for immediate action on tropical forests.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter223IDForum for Applied Research and Public Policy113Development of C&I for tropical plantation forestsHopmans, P.Prabhu, R.Brand, D.Nambiar, S.Cossalter, C1998criteriaindicatorsforest plantationsproductivitysustainabilityinternational cooperationresearch institutesTropical countries are expanding plantation forestry to develop sustainable wood production systems. Much of this is based on short rotations of exotic species. These systems require large capital investments, represent intensive land use and increase the demands on the soil. To develop options for maintaining or increasing productivity, a partner-project was initiated by Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) with three objectives: 1) evaluate the impact of soil and site management practices on the productivity of successive rotations of plantations, 2) develop management options for maintaining or increasing productivity and 3) where it is appropriate strengthen local institutional capacity to respond to new problems and opportunities. The project focuses on the critical inter-rotational phase of management: harvesting, site preparation, and early stand developement. A core set of treatments selected to create a range of impacts on organic matter and nutrients supply intensities will be included at all locations. Optional treatments tailored to each site will be added as required by local management, and soil and stand considerations. Each location will carry out a self-contained experiment that will produce scientifically valid results on its own merit. All experiments are networked to integrate the information so underlying processes can be understood and options for science based management developed. All sites are expected to be valuable reference sites for long-term investigations.http://www.itto.or.jp/newsletter/newsletter.htmlArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter406IDITTO Tropical Forest Update38Eucalypt plantationsTurnbull, J.W1999Eucalyptusforest plantationsforest products industriessustainabilityuseshistoryThis paper reviews the historical development of the use of the eucalypt over 200 years, from its curiosity status in the botanical gardens of Europe to its extensive use as a fuelwood for the wood-burning locomotives of the national railway systems, and then to its more recent use as a major source of biomass for paper pulp, fiberboard, industrial carcoal, and fuelwood. Ecological and biological aspects of the genus Eucalyptus have made it successful as an exotic in industrial monocultures and as a multipurpose tree of benefit to small landholders. Social, policy, and economic aspects of growing Eucalyptus are examined, as are rospects for using the eucalypt in the twenty-first century as an industrial plantation tree and as a component of farming systems in the rural landscape.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter566IDNew Forests0169-428617Spatial characterisation of non-timber forest products markets in the humid forest zone of CameroonRuiz Perez, M.Ndoye, O.Eyebe, A.Puntodewo, A2000non-timber forest productsmarketsDacryodes edulisGarcinia lucidahumid zonesspatial analysisCopyrighted 2000 by the Commonwealth Forestry Association. Reprinted by permission. More details are available on http://www.cfa-international.org/IFR.htmlThe paper analyses the structure of non-timber forest products (NTFP) markets in the humid forest zone (HFZ) of Cameroon from a spatial perspective. A characterisation of 25 markets based on a set of products, traders, and market place attributes was produced. The combination of the attributes size and self-sufficiency results in four main types of markets (national, provincial, local and frontier), whereas clustering based on all the attributes clearly distinguishes the northern and southern areas of the HFZ, and an urban-rural, core-periphery relationship within each area. This separation reflects different product specialisations and diversity, as well as market size. Dacryodes and Gnetum predominate in the northern markets, which tend to be larger, whereas Garcinia lucida, G. Kola and Irvingia are relatively more abundant in the southern markets. In general, larger markets are more diversified and their traders are more specialised than the smaller ones. There are also differences in product storage time, distance from source of products, level of taxation, and transportation problems. The need to understand the multiple, non-linear interactions among these factors is stressed.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/APerez0001.pdfArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter631CMInternational Forestry Review22Multiple criteria decision making approaches to assessing forest sustainability using criteria and indicators: a case studyMendoza, G.A.Prabhu, R2000social forestrycase studiescriteriaindicatorsforest managementconcessionsassessmentdecision makingsustainabilitycopy availableThis paper describe the use of multiple criteria decision tools for assessing criteria and indicators designed to evaluate sustainable forest management. Three techniques called ranking, rating, and pairwise comparisons are described and used within the framework of a generic set of criteria and indicators applied in a case study involving a forest concession in Kalimantan, Indonesia. For the case study, an assessment team consisting of national and international experts representing various disciplines was chosen to conduct an assessment of the forest concession. The criteria and indicators (C&I) developed by the Center for International Forestry Research were used as a reference. From this generic set of C&I, the assessment team made revisions to make the set more relevant to the prevailing conditions in the forest concession. This modified set was used in the assessment of the concession. Results from the study indicate that these techniques are effective tools both for selecting sets of criteria and indicators and eventually for prioritising them. The methods are highly transparent, easy to understand, and offer a convenient environment for participatory decision-making. These are desirable features of any evaluation but most especially for a complex assessment problem such as forest sustainability.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter637CMForest Ecology and Management0378-1127131Evaluating and selecting criteria and indicators of forest sustainability: a case study on participatory assessment under CBFM in the PhilippinesMendoza, G.A.Prabhu, R1999evaluationselection criteriaindicatorsforestssustainabilitycase studiesassessmentanalysisCopy availableThis paper describes an application of multi-criteria analysis (MCA) in evaluating and selecting criteria and indicators (C&I) of forest sustainability. The method was applied on a case study involving a forest area managed under the Community-Based Forest Management System of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Experience gained from the study indicates that MCA is a suitable tool for the systematic evaluation of C&I including validation of previously developed national set of C&I, modification of the validated set by incorporating other externally generated C&I, and ultimately, prioritization of the C&I according to their perceived importance.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter682PHJournal of Environmental Science and Management22Micro-differences in local resource management: the case of honey in West Kalimantan, Indonesiade Jong, W2000honey beesApis dorsataresource managementrural communitiesThis paper discusses two cases of honey procurement in the province of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Both involve the same resource, i.e. honey from Apis dorsata bees. However, in each case this resource is handled differently, showing that local resource management practices may be very site specific. Any local resource management practices involve local technological knowledge, but also social behavior, restrictions, and rules systems. The paper argues that such institutionalized resource management provides a sound basis for resource use that meets new challenges, such as achieving sustainable use or increasing monetary incomes. The possible practical implications depend on the particularities of each individual case. The first case this paper examines is honey tree management among the Maté-maté Dayak, who make up one of the Bidayuh language groups living in the district of Sanggau, Central West Kalimantan. These people can own single honey trees that are inhabited by bees; they protect the trees and encourage bees to nest in them. The second case involves honey procurements by Malay who live in the Danau Sentarum lake area, in the district of Kapuas Hulu, about 250 km east of the Maté-mate Dayak. Here, apiculturists assemble specially shaped boards that are popular nesting sites for A. dorsata bees. Once a swarm finds such a board, it continues to occupy the same board in successive years. Both Dayak and Malay beekeepers have an elaborate set of rules that regulate access to the trees and the nesting sites and impose fines for the breaking of such rules.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter713PHHuman Ecology0300-7839428Linking livelihoods and conservation: a conceptual framework and scale for assessing the integration of human needs and biodiversitySalafsky, N.Wollenberg, E2000environmentpeoplelinkagenature conservationevaluationresearch projectscopy availableAlthough there has been increasing interest in trying to link the livelihoods of people living near natural resources, there has been little attempt to systematically assess or measure this linkage. A conceptual framework for defining the linkage between livelihood activities and conservation is developed and then a scale to assess the strength of linkage across five dimensions: species, habitat, spatial, temporal and conservation association. Evaluating 39 project sites in the Biodiversity Conservation Network tests the framework and scale. Finally, the relevance of linkage to designing appropriate conservation strategies is discussed.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter633PHWorld Development0305-750X828Khasi women and matriliny: transformations in gender relationsNongbri, T2000womengender relations?ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter656PHGender, Technology and Development34News from TROPISVanclay, J.K1997information systemstreesArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter278PHIUFRO News326An ex-post methodology for measuring poor people's participation in social forestry: an example from Java, IndonesiaSunderlin, W.D1997methodologymeasurementpovertypeopleparticipationsocial forestryOne of the key goals of social forestry is to involve the poor as project beneficiaries. It is possible to measure the degree of attainment of this goal by collecting socioeconomic data before and after project implementation. This approach cannot be applied at the many sites where ex-ante data were never gathered. This article proposes a methodology for evaluating the degree of inclusion of the poor in social forestry using ex-post data alone. Longitudinal analysis is approximated through the use of 'slow change' socioeconomic variables and through logistic regression. The methodology is illustrated with data on the Java Social Forestry Program.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter311PHAgroforestry Systems37Economic opportunities for smallholders to combine pulpwood trees and food cropsMenz, K.M.Grist, P1997food Cropseconomicspulpwoodforest treesInput/output data from tree growing experiments in Southeast Asia were analysed within the framework of a model of a smallholder farm. Data on cropping were obtained from surveys of farmers. Prior to formulating a whole farm model, this input/output data were modified in two ways: (a) a yield penalty was imposed upon a continuous cropping regime to reflect the impact of land degradation; (b) an agroforestry (intercropping) activity was synthesised by reference to an existing agroforestry bioeconomic model. The modelling framework was conventional linear programming. The interplay of land area availability, land and labour productivity, and interest rates lead to a relatively complex picture, even for the simplified farming systems that were examined. Model results showed a clear indication of the potential role of trees, but this potential role decreased with increasing interest rates. The analysis suggested that smaller farms will be less inclined towards tree growing. A mixture of trees and crops appears attractive, on purely economic grounds, over a wide range of interest rates and land areas. Consideration of factors outside the model, such as risk aversion objectives of smallholders, and their limited opportunities to borrow for investments in tree planting, reinforce the tendency to combine trees and crops.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter315PHAgroforestry Systems36Book review. Palms: their conservation and sustained utilizationPutz, F.E1997conservationsustainabilityusespalmsArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter380PHAgroforestry Systems37No forest without managementPoore, D.Blaser, J.Bruenig, E.F.Burgess, P1998forest managementsustainabilityecosystemsArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter441PHITTO Tropical Forest Update48The Indonesian crisis and its impact on the forestry sectorSayer, J.A1998economic crisesforestryArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter502IDCGIAR NewsAugustMacro-economics, markets and the humid forests of Cameroon, 1967-1997Ndoye, O.Kaimowitz, D2000agricultural policycocoadeforestationeconomic impactenvironmental impactfluctuationstructural adjustmentfood Cropsloggingmarketspopulation growthcoffeeCopy availableThe paper analyses how macro-economic and agricultural policies, market fluctuations and demographic changes affected forests in the Humid Forest Zone of Cameroon in four periods between 1967 and 1997. For each period it examines how these variables influenced cocoa, coffee, food, and agro-industrial crop production and area, and logging. It concludes that government policies, market fluctuations and demographic changes all had a strong impact on forests. Pressure on forests increased after structural adjustment policies were initiated in the mid- 1980s. Malthusian reasoning alone cannot explain the level of deforestation and forest degradation in Cameroon.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter708CMJournal of Modern African Studies238Development of a methodology for selecting criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management: a case study on participatory assessmentMendoza, G.A.Prabhu, R2000criteriaanalysisassessmentmethodologydecision makingforest managementindicatorsparticipationcase studiesThis paper describes an application of multiple criteria analysis (MCA) in assessing criteria and indicators adapted for a particular forest management unit. The methods include: ranking, rating, and pairwise comparisons. These methods were used in a participatory decision-making environment where a team representing various stakeholders and professionals used their expert opinions and judgements in assessing different criteria and indicators (C&I), and how suitable and applicable they are to a forest management unit. A forest concession located in Kalimantan, Indonesia, was used as the site for the case study. Results from the study show that the multi-criteria methods are effective tools that can be used as structured decision aids to evaluate, prioritise, and select sets of C&I for a particular forest management unit. Ranking and rating approaches can be used as a screening tool to develop an initial list of C&I. Pairwise comparison, on the other hand, can be used as a finer filter to further reduce the list. In addition to using these three MCA methods, the study also examines two commonly used group decision-making techniques; the Delphi method and the nominal group technique. Feedback received from the participants indicates that the methods are transparent, easy to implement, and provide a convenient environment for participatory decision-making.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter756CMEnvironmental Management26The STREK projectSist, P.Bertault, J-G1997regenerationsilvicultureSTREK is the acronym for Silvicultural Techniques for the Regeneration of logged over forests in East Kalimantan, Indonesia project. The Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia and CIRAD-Forìt were the lead the institutions. The Indonesian state-owned company INHUTANI I was the implementation agency in the field. The study area located in the Indonesian province of East Kalimantan. The INHUTANI I concession was mainly covered by primary and logged lowland mixed dipterocarps forest. Two sites, 1000 ha each, were selected. On the first site (RKL 1), logged in 1978-1979, six plots, 4 ha each were set up. On the second site (RKL 4), covered by primary forst until 1991, 12 plots, 4 ha each were set up. The plots, all trees with dbh = 10 cm were measured, numbered and mapped on a scale of 1:200. Other important physical features such as topography and soil were also assessed in each plot. Two different silvicultural treatments (chemical thinning) were tested in RKL 1. Reduced-impact logging techniques (RIL) were applied and compared to conventional ones in RKL 4. Four treatments were defined: two RIL, with two different diameter limits (>50 and >60 cm), one conventional and a control without harvesting. Reduced -impact logging techniques included planning of skid-trails before logging, directional felling, and climber cutting three months before logging.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter168IDFAO Forest Harvesting Bulletin17Factors determining low deforestation: the Bolivian AmazonKaimowitz, D1997deforestationcausesDeterminants of low deforestation in Bolivia are analysed, based on the Bolivian experience and general deforestation literature, and lessons are drawn for other countries with low deforestation. Weak domestic demand for agricultural products and poor transportation infrastructure are the principal causes of low deforestation. Weak domestic demand is related to small population and low per capita income, and poor transportation infrastructure is a function of a country's low capacity for investment in infrastructure and political factors. Production for export plays an important role in deforestation in these contexts, and is influenced by policies such as road building, appreciated exchange rates and subsidies for commercial agriculture. Factors influencing land clearing by poor families are less relevant. Political and institutional factors deserve greater attention than they have received in previous deforestation literature.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter5BOAmbio0044-7447828The nitrogen supply from soils and insects during growth of the pitcher plants Nepenthes mirabilis, Cephalotus follicularis and Darlingtonia californiaGillison, A.N.Schulze, W.Schulze, E.D.Pate, J.S1997soilinsectsnitrogenNepenthesThis study investigated the nitrogen (N) acquisition from soil and insect capture during the growth of three species of pitcher plants, Nepenthes mirabilis, Cephalotus follicularis dan Darlingtonia californica. 15N/14/N natural abundance ratios (d15N) of plants and pitchers of different age, non-carnivolrous reference plants, and insect prey were used to estimate proportional contributions of insects to the N content of leaves and whole plants. Young Nepenthes leaves (phyllodes) carrying closed pitchers comprised major sinks for N and developed mainly from insect N captured elsewhere on the plant. Their d15N values of up to 7.2&permil; were higher than the average d15N value of captured insects (mean d15N value=5.3&permil;). In leaves carrying old pitchers that are acting as a N source, the d15N decreased to 3.0&permil; indicating either an increasing contribution of soil N to those plant parts which in fact captured the insects or N gain from N2 fixation by microorganisms which may exist in old pitchers. The d15N value of N in water collected from old pitchers was 1.2&permil; and contained free amino acids. The fraction of insect N in young and old pitchers and their associated leaves decreased from 1.0 to 0.3 mg g-1. This fraction of insect decreased further with the size of the investigated tiller. Nepenthes contained on average 61.5 + 7.6% (mean + SD, range 50-71%) insect N based on the N content of a whole tiller. In the absence of suitable non-carnivorous reference plants for Cephalotus, d15N values were assessed across a developmental sequence from young plants lacking pitchers to large adults with up to 38 pitchers. The data indicated dependence on soil N until 4 pitchers had opened. Beyond that stage plant size increased with the number of catching pitchers but the fraction of soil N remained high. Large Cephalotus plants were estimated to derive 26 + 5.9% (mean + SD of the three largest plants; range: 19-30%) of the N form insects. In Cephalotus we observed an increased d15N value in sink versus source pitchers of about 1.2&permil; on average. Source and sink pitchers of Darlingtonia had a similar d15N value, but plant N in this species showed d15N signals closer to that of insect contributed 76.4 + 8.4% (range 57-90%) to total pitcher N content. The data suggest complex patterns of partitioning of insect and soil-derived N between source and sink regions in pitcher plants and possibly higher dependence on insect N than recorded elsewhere for Drosera speciesArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter14BOOecologia112Evaluating forest growth modelsVanclay, J.K.Skovsgaard., J.P1997growth modelsforestsEffective model evaluation is not a single, simple procedure, but comprises several interrelated steps that cannot be separated from each other or from the purpose and process of model construction. We draw attention to several statistical and graphical procedures that may assist in model calibration and evaluation, with special emphasis on those useful in forest growth modeling. We propose a five-step framework to examine logic and bio-logic, statistical properties, characteristics of errors, residuals, and sensitivity analyses. Empirical evaluations may be made with data used in fitting the model, and with additional data not previously used. We emphasize that the validity of conclusions drawn from all these assessments depends on the validity of assumptions underlying both the model and the evaluation. These principles should be kept in mind throughout model construction and evaluation.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter16BOEcological Modelling98A methodology to analyze divergent case studies of non-timber forest products and their development potentialRuiz Perez, M.Byron, R.N1999case studiesclassificationdata analysisgovernment policylegal rightsmethodologynon-timber forest productspropertyDebate currently rages over the development potential of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) in tropical forests. Proponents of particular "solutions" can refer to evidence (case studies, data) which tend to support their interpretation of events and relationships. Recommendations thus frequently depend on how data are classified and interpreted. Inaccurate or incomplete classification leads to defective subsequent theories, models, and recommendations. We present a method for classifying very divergent case-study data, and some initial results as a basis for general understanding of key factors that influence a given result. Crucial issues determining outcomes of NTFP development include the nature of government involvement, distribution of property rights, the ability of local people to claim and enforce such rights, market transparency, and pressure on the resource. This paper concludes with suggestions for further testing and development of the methodology.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter46BOForest Science145Analysis of social economy and policies on production management systems: a case study on China&rsquo;s bamboo industryZhong MaogongFu MaoyiBelcher, B.Ruiz Perez, M1997bamboosindustryanalysissocioeconomicsproductionOver recent years, there has been rapid development of the bamboo industry in China since reform and liberalisation, which have brought about a series of economic policies and regulations favourable to economic development. Between 1981 and 1993, the area covered by bamboo forests expanded at a rate higher than the growth rate in forest-covered areas of the country over the same period. By 1996, the annual production value of primary products from bamboo resources reached 0.9 billion USD. The export value of manufactured bamboo products was US$ 35 million in 1995. Because 93% of bamboo forests in rural areas is collective-owned and directly managed by farmers, the increase in yields and profits from bamboo forest products significantly improves incomes and living standards of rural people. Thus the bamboo industry has become an important means to reduce poverty among the rural population. The purpose of this study is to promote sustainable development of the bamboo sector by reviewing the development of bamboo industries in Anji County, Zhejian Province. The review analyses industry fundamentals, approaches and potential weaknesses and explores the direction and methods for its further development.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter47CNForestry Economics (Chinese)5Die entwicklung und uberprufung von kriterien und indikatoren fur die nachhaltige waldewirtschaftung - der CIFOR praxistestDroste, H.J1997criteriaindicatorsCIFORArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter99CNSchweiz. Z. Forstwes8148Response of forest tree samplings to experimental mechanical damage in lowland PanamaGuariguata, M.R1998forest treesforest damagePhysical damage to saplings is considered an important factor that affects tree population dynamics in tropical forests, but interspecific differences in post-damage vegetative recovery and survival have been rarely quantified. Over 4 years, the vegetative and demographic responses to experimental mechanical damage were monitored in naturally-growing saplings of four coexisting tree species, under comparable overhead illumination conditions, in a lowland moist forest in Central Panama. Inflicted damage mimicked both crown loss and stem breaage ('snapped') and stem pinning by fallen debris ('bent') in individuals (1.0-2.5 m tall) of Alseis blackiana (Rubiaceae), Protium panamense, P. tenuifolium, and Tetragastris panamensis (all Burseraceae). For all species combined, 4-year percent mortality was significantly different between bent (21%), snapped (13%), and undamaged controls (6%). Species differed in their capacity to survive damage. Saplings of A. blackiana showed the highest resilience, expressed as a high ability to regain pre-damage height in snapped individuals, production of adventitious roots in bent individuals, and very high survival. A previous classification of the study species fit them into a large 'generalist' guild, after no illumination preferences were obvious for their juvenile growth and survival at the study site. In contracts, this study suggests that tree vegetative behavior should be incorporated in future tropical forest research that attempts to detect species differentiation in regeneration potential at the saplings phaseArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter100PAForest Ecology and Management0378-11272/3102Evaluation of forestry research capacity in eastern and southern AfricaKowero, G.S.Spilsbury, M.J1997evaluationForest ResearchA methodology for evaluating research capacity is outlined and applied to 19 institutions in 10 countries. The indicators used are not comprehensive but are useful for evaluating the performance of existing research capacity. The results reemphasised the need to give priority to manpower recruitment, training and development since only about half of all scientists in the institutions surveyed have sufficient training and research exposure. Research management also requires urgent attention. About 17% of the institutions surveyed allocate more than 20% of their research budgets to the transfer and dissemination of research findings to 'user groups' and about 28% of staff time is said to be allocated to this purpose. This raises questions about how research priorities and programmes are formulated and about the relevance of the research conducted. There is considerable interaction between institutions in the region but how this can be translated into coordinated collaborative activities remains unclear.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter116PAJournal of World Forest Resource Management28Technologies for sustainable forest management: challenges for the 21st centurySayer, J.A.Vanclay, J.K.Byron, R.N1997technologysustainabilityforest managementTechnology will help to address the challenges for sustainable forestry in the 21st century. Some of the challenges will include the shift of production from native forest to plantations in areas of comparative advantage, more efficient processing delinking end-use products from raw wood characteristics, increased demand, better information technologies to support decision makers, and more options for conserving biodiversity. Definitions of sustainability will vary in time and space as society's expectations and aspirations change, so there can be no 'silver bullet' to ensure sustainability. However, progress may be facilitated with a systematic approach to forest management embracing the usual planning cycle: formulation of objectives, preparation of a strategy, planning, implementing, monitoring and reappraisal. This requires a good understanding of each particular situation. Managers need good resource assessment and decision support systems; they must foster stakeholder participation in decisions, costs and benefits; and ensure effective procedures to resolve conflicts. Within an appropriate system, technical advances such as better machines and new implements may help to make a difference, but will not in themselves ensure sustainability. The important technologies for sustainable forestry are those that foster better communication between stakeholders and allow informed decisions spanning scales from the gene to the ecosystem. This remains an important challenge for forest managers in their search for sustainability.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter123PACommonwealth Forestry Review376International development assistance in forestry and land management: the process and the playersByron, R.N1997development aidforestryland management&ldquo;Why do so many forestry aid projects fail?&rdquo; is a question being asked more frequently. Most replies list technical difficulties in implementation. However, this paper argues that the answer can only be found through understanding two much more general processes; how a forestry activity relates to the broader socio-economic context in which it is embedded; and how development assistance operates in practice. Many projects which professional foresters see as failures in technical or even humanitarian terms may have been successful according to other political or commercial criteria, or to the tests of other interest groups. In spite of the constrains inherent in the international development process, many forestry projects have successfully delivered real and lasting benefits to societies, economies and the environment. Projects, especially ones of social forestry character, will continue to fail if design and implementation do not pay attention to the needs of the target group, the poor.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/AByron9701.pdfArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter124PACommonwealth Forestry Review176Imperata economics and policyTomich, T.P.Kussipalo, V.Menz, K.Byron, R.N1997economicspolicyimperataShould policy makers - or anyone else - care about millions of ha of Imperata grassland? The answer depends on the balance between costs of conversion to other uses and the net benefits produced in economic growth, poverty alleviation, and protection of the environment. The first section on Imperata economics sets up the analytical framework to address this question and draws on the wider development economics literature to consider whether growth and poverty alleviation are conflicting or complementary objectives. Although evidence is limited, it suggests smallholder-based agroforestry could provide the same economic growth with greater poverty alleviation than large-scale forestry estates. There is, however, no substitute for project appraisal for specific settings. The second section on Imperata policy reviews whether policy distortions and market failures provide a sufficient rationale for direct policy intervention to promote tree planting on Imperata grasslands. Estimates of imputed values of carbon sequestration to alleviate global warming are presented for Acacia mangium and rubber agroforestry. The conclusion summarizes the policy research agenda and examines the desirability and feasibility of policy intervention to promote carbon sequestration through Imperata grassland conversion to tree-based systems.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter125PAAgroforestry Systems36Deforestation and capital accumulation: lessons from the Upper Kerinci region, IndonesiaWibowo, D.H.Tissdell, C.A.Byron, R.N1997deforestationThis study outlines a case where the behaviour of farmers in accumulating capital, rather than their poverty as commonly assumed, results in deforestation. Fieldwork was undertaken in the Upper Kerinci region of the island of Sumatera, Indonesia. A financial analysis of the "net income" streams received by farmers from deforestation is performed. Because forest lands can be "captured " and privatised through clearing and the subsequent agriculture have the capacity to produce high financial returns for farmers as well as to provide adequate capital to finance the next forest clearing. Such a capacity enables landless farmers to become land owners. Forest clearing also enables farmers to own a "long-term maturity bond" in the form of a cinnamon plantation. Poverty precludes poorer farmers from deforestation, and decisions to clear a forest rest mostly with more established farmers. Financial surpluses from outside the forestry and agricultural sectors are also used to finance forest clearing.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter128IDAsia Pacific Journal of Environment and Development14International forestry cooperation: which way now ?Kiekens, J. P.Byron, R.N1997cooperationforestryAlthough the international forestry dialogue has improved significantly since the Earth Summit, much remains to be done if sustainable forestry management is to be implemented on a global scale. This article discusses current trends: frequent, lengthy talks with limited action; declining official development assistance to forestry; an incomplete and incoherent international institutional framework; and increased reliance on hypothetical market-based mechanisms such as certification. It concludes that most progress towards worldwide forest sustainability will depend on good governance at the national and international level. Countries need to design and implement policies to address underlying causes of forest degradation and loss, both within and outside the forestry sector. An international framework that is truly conducive to sustainable forestry must be shaped through far-reaching reforms, such as strengthening development aid to forestry, adopting operational means of international forestry cooperation, reforming international forestry institutions and adopting a supportive legal framework.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter132IDEco-Decision5An experimental comparison of different harvesting intensities with reduced-impact and conventional logging in East KalimantanBertault, J-G.Sist, P1997harvestinglogging effectsdamagereduced impact loggingTimber harvesting was investigated both in terms of commercial timber volume extracted and impact on residual stand. Conventional (CNV) and reduced impact logging (RIL) techniques were compared on the basis of pre- and post-harvesting stand inventories. The timber volume extracted averaged 87 m3 ha-1 and the resulting commercial volume was 46 m3 ha-1 (i.e., 53.7% of the felled volume). On average, logging damage affected 40% of the residual trees (diameter at breast height (dbh) over 10 cm); injured and dead trees were recorded in equivalent proportions (21% and 19% respectively. Generally, felling operations caused injury to trees, crown damage being most common, whereas skidding caused death to trees, essentially by uprooting. Tree injury and death from RIL, in contrast, was substantially lower (30.5%) than from conventional methods (48.1%). This study demonstrated that the impact of logging on trees can be substantially reduced by strict supervision and planning of logging operations and limit of harvesting intensity, which should not exceed 80 m3 ha-1. If these technical recommendations are followed, it is possible to reduce the damage by 20%, which is equivalent to about 100 stems ha-1 (dbh over 10 cm).ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter167IDForest Ecology and Management0378-11271-394Fishers organisations and modes of co-management: the case of San Miguel Bay, PhilipinesSunderlin, W.D.Gorospe, M.L.G1997collaborationorganizationsfishery managementRecent writings have claimed that fisheries management can be improved through joint regulation by government bodies and resource users, and through partial devolution of management authority from government to fishers' organizations. The Philippines appears to provide an optimal institutional setting for the emergence of fisheries co-management. The government has enacted legislation to assist fishers' organizations in taking on a larger management role and there has been a proliferation of fishers' organizations interested in taking on increased responsibility for resource management. The case of San Miguel Bay shows a situation in which two parallel modes of co-management have emerged. The formal mode draws largely on government initiative and is pluralistic. The informal mode draws on the initiative of fishers' organizations and civillian action, and is oriented to the interests of small-scale fishers. Effective long-term co-management requires above all addressing gear conflict and the marginalization of small-scale fishers, and integrating the efforts of the two modes.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter171PHHuman Organization356Using plant functional attributes to quantify site productivity and growth patterns in mixed forestsVanclay, J.K.Gillison, A.N.Keenan, R.N1997mixed forestsgrowth modelsproductivityForest growth models form one of several important prerequisites for sustainable management. The complexity of tropical moist forest means that there is often little objective information to classify sites and species for growth modelling and yield prediction. Classification based on observable morphological characteristics may be a useful surrogate for, or supplement to, other alternatives. This study investigated the utility of plant functional attributes (PFAs) for site and species classification. PFAs describe a plant in terms of its photosynthetic and vascular support system, and the sum of individual PFAs for all species on a plot provides an efficient summary of vegetation features at the site. Preliminary observations suggested that the PFA summary may also indicate site productivity, and that specific PFAs may be used to group species for modelling growth and yield. Data from 17 permanent plots in the tropical rainforests of North Queesland were used to test these preliminary observations. Standard PFA proformas were completed for each plot in January 1995, and the relationship between the PFAs, site productivity and specific growth patters were examined using discriminant analysis, linear regression and standard statistical tests. Results indicate that mean leaf size, and the incidence of species with vertical leaf inclination (more than 30.. above horizontal) are significantly correlated with site productivity. Of the PFAs assessed, five elements appear to offer a useful basis for grouping species for modelling: leaf size and inclination, a furcation index (i.e. relative height to first fork or break in the main stem), and the presence of lenticels and chlorophyllous tissue on the main stem. The restricted nature of our database limits comment on the general utility of the method, but results suggest that further work on PFAs is warranted.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter224PHForest Ecology and Management0378-11271/394Forest regeneration in abandoned logging roads in lowland Costa RicaGuariguata, M.R.Manuel, R.Dupuy, J.M1997regenerationforestslogginglowland areasmacroeconomicsThis study characterised plant regeneration in four old logging roads (700-1 000 m long) in selectively logged forests in lowland Costa Rica, 12-17 years after abandonment. Sets of 4 m2 plots were laid out at 20 m intervals in three distinct microhabitats: road track (topsoil eliminated), road edge (where removed topsoil accumulates on the sides after road construction), and adjacent logged forest. Density of stems taller than 1 m and at least 5 cm dbh (included canopy trees, midstorey trees, lianas, palms, shrubs and tree fern species) was highest in the road edge plots than either the track or logged forest plots. This &lsquo;edge effect&rsquo; is presumably due to buried seed germination of light-demanding trees and shrubs after moderate soil disturbance, less compaction and higher substrate fertility than in road tracks. Species richness was the lowest, but relative dominance the highest, in the track plots of all roads: 6-9 species comprised alone 50% of the Importance Value Index (IVI), in contrast to 11-15 and 16-22 species required to reach 50% IVI in edge and forest plots, respectively. There was evidence of soil compaction in tracks in three out of four roads which, in addition to low substrate fertility and initial lack of on-site plant propagules, could explain slower recovery of stem density and species richness compared to edge and logged forest plots. For stems between 5 20 cm dbh, density and basal area in the track plots averaged about one-fourth of edge and logged forest plot values. We estimated recovery of basal area in road tracks to take at least 80 years to reach the status found in logged forest, and species richness over an even longer period. We suggest that abandoned logging roads serve as long corridors of relatively uniform and long-la sting floristic and structural characteristics that may confer particular ecological roles in selectively logged forests.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter236CRBiotropica0006-3606129Catalyzing native forest regeneration on degraded tropical landsParrotta, J.A.Turnbull, J.W.Jones, N1997natural regenerationdegraded landtropicsForest clearing, forest degradation through human disturbance, and the deterioration of land productivity due to inappropriate agricultural practices is a major problem in the tropics. Restoration of ecosystem health and productivity has generally relied on abandonment of land and subsequent natural for succession. In recent years there has been consideration of management options to accelerate recovery and restore productivity, biodiversity and other values. The use of tree plantations to catalyze restoration of degraded forests and lands in the tropics was addressed at a symposium in Washington DC in June 1996. The conclusions and suggestions for future research to develop appropriate management options are reported. There is strong evidence that plantations can facilitate forest succession in their understories through modification of both physical and biological site conditions. Changes in light, temperature and moisture at the soil surface enable germination and growth of seeds transported to the site by wildlife and other vectors from adjacent forest remnants. Development and design of management options to assist this process are required, taking into account socio-economic realities, development priorities and conservation goals.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter256CRForest Ecology and Management0378-11271-299The poverty-environment thesis: was Brundtland wrong?Angelsen, A1997povertyenvironmentThe poverty-environment thesis suggests that the poor are both the agents and victims of environmental degradation. Even though the thesis may have been necessary to avoid a North-South confrontation on environmental issues, its validity can be questioned. It is argued that the coexistence of poverty and environmental disruption could more appropriately be seen as the joint consequence of limited opportunities for some groups, uneven processes of development, an unequal distribution of rights and power, and misguided policies. Higher income in many cases increases the pressure on the environment. This will in particular be the case when investments and purchased inputs are used to increase the capacity to exploit natural resources, and where pollution is related to the use of fossil fuels.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter281CRForum for Development Studies1Fishermen, farmers, forest change and fireDennis, R.A.Puntodewo, A.Colfer, C.J.P1998fishermenfarmersforestschangeeffectsforest firesgeographical information systemsremote sensingThe recent forest fires in Indonesia have left severe scars on the environment and the economy. Remote sensing and GIS are being integrated and utilized to quantify the effects of the burning on the several local communities in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter285IDGIS AsiaPacificFebruary/MarchStructure and floristic of secondary and old growth stands in lowland Costa RicaGuariguata, M.R.Chazdon, R.L.Denslow, J.S.Dupuy, J.M.Anderson, L1997lowland areasforest treessecondary forestsThe study characterised stand structure and floristic composition of woody life forms in three, 16-18 year old secondary stands that regenerated after pasture abandonment, and three nearby old-growth stands of tropical rainforest in lowland Costa Rica. Basal area and stem density for each of four plant size classes (seedling, saplings, treelets, trees) were similar among stand types, but density of adult canopy palms (individuals over 10 cm dbh), was lower in the secondary stands. The observed rapid woody regrowth, compared to other published studies in the lowland neotropics, can be attributed to moderate land use and possibly to the influence of nutrient-rich volcanic soils in the study area. Overall, plant species richness was lower in the secondary stands, but this difference was less pronounced in the smallest size classes (seedlings, saplings). Median percentage similarity of all pairwise stand comparisons showed that floristic composition of saplings (stems over 1 m tall and over 5 cm dbh) was more similar between secondary and old-growth stands than for trees (stems over 10 cm dbh). Because the potential value of secondary forests in conserving woody plant diversity appears highest for the young size classes, we suggest that further studies on floristic composition, especially those addressing the dynamics of the understorey component, are needed to refine our understanding of the role of this natural resource in the maintenance of plant biodiversity in disturbed landscapes.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter306CRPlant Ecology132Mobilizing expert knowledge of tree growth with the PLANTGRO and INFER systemsHackett, C.Vanclay, J.K1998treesgrowthexpert systemsPLANTGRO can provide estimates of plant and tree growth under a wide range of conditions by evaluating responses to some 20 environmental variables ranging from day length to soil pH and determining the limiting factor. Although intended only to indicate the suitability of a given site-species combination, empirical trials suggest that the suitability index provides a reasonable indication of growth potential, offering correlations with height growth as high as 80%. PLANTGRO can be calibrated for new situations by providing appropriate soil, climate and species files. These can be compiled from plot-based data, casual observations, or expert knowledge. INFER is an expert system which complements PLANTGRO by providing an objective framework to elucidate plant growth details from casual observations. Together, INFER and PLANTGRO offer an effective way to provide initial growth estimates for species-site combinations not covered by plot data or other models. PLANTGRO is available from C.Hackett, and INFER and many PLANTGRO files for forest trees may be accessed on the internet at http://www.cgiar.org/cifor/research/tropis/PLANTGRO.html.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter331CREcological Modelling106TROPIS: Tree Growth and Permanent Plot Information SystemVanclay, J.K1998researchinformation systemstreesnetworkingdatabasesTROPIS, the Tree Growth and Permanent Plot Information System, contains five elements: (1) a network of people willing to share permanent plot data and tree growth information, serviced by newsletters and information sources hosted at http:/'/www.cgnet.or g/cifor/research/tropis.htmI (or available from CIFOR), (2) an index of people and institutions holding permanent plot data, (3) a database management system to assist more efficient data management, (4) a system to facilitate site -matching by identifying comparable sites and allowing foreign data to be used when no local growth information exists, and (5) an inference system to allow growth estimates to be made in the absence of empirical data. The index or metadatabase contains references to 12,000 plots with 3,000 species provided by 100 contributors, and is growing at about 1,000 plots per month. Searches of the database are welcomed, and may be directed to the author.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter332CRJournal Forest Planning4Information systems in forestryDykstra, D.P1997information systemsforest managementinformation technologyforestryInformation has always been an important "stock in trade" of forest managers. Knowledge of tree species, stand age, growth characteristics, site quality, soil and terrain classes, logging costs and products markets have all been essential for profitable forest management for many decades. What has changed is the technology for collecting, analysing and presenting this information, and particularly the speed at which this is done. Forest managers must understand the implications of information and new information technologies and how information needs will affect both the personnel and structure of their organisations. This article considers some emerging information technologies that are becoming important for many forestry organisations as tools to improve strategic and tactical planning and operations management and control.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter334CRUnasylva18948Foreword to the second volume of the special issue containing refereed papers presented at thematic workshops during the CIFOR/UNEP project on sustainable forest management in Anglophone West AfricaKio, P.R.O.Ofosu-Asiedu, A.Dykstra, D.P.Kowero, G1997CIFORArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter335CRGhana Journal of Forestry14Deforestation, livelihoods, and the preconditions for sustainable management in Olancho, HondurasSunderlin, W.D1997deforestationliving conditionssustainabilityforest managementHondurasGrowth of the national cattle herd is contributing to rapid and inappropriate deforestation in Honduras. Field research was conducted in the Department of Olancho to better understand this problem and to assess the possibilities for local interest in forest protection. A recent upsurge in the profitability of cattle farming bodes badly for the forest, but three countervailing factors could ultimately serve as the basis for community-based forest management. First, area residents have a greater appreciation for the economic and ecological functions of the forest than one might surmise, given the rapid pace of deforestation. Second, timber is a significant source of community income, thus there may be latent incentives to maintain supplies in the long term. Third, some residents will not turn to cattle farming, in spite its profitability, perhaps because of their dependence on timber marketing. Policies enacted in 1992 undermine these incipient incentives for forest custodianship. Inappropriate deforestation can be lessened through policy reforms that would enable smallhorders to conserve and manage their resource their resources over the long-term.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter358CRAgriculture and Human Values0889-048X114Harvesting intensity versus sustainability in IndonesiaSist, P.Nolan, T.Bertault, J-G.Dykstra, D.P1998harvestingsustainabilitytropical forestsselective fellingdamagelogging effectssilvicultural systemsplanningIn East Kalimantan (Indonesia), impacts of conventional and reduced-impact logging (RIL) on forest ecosystems were compared on the basis of pre- and post-harvesting stand inventories. There was a positive and significant correlation between the proportion of trees damaged by felling and the density of trees felled. Logging intensity ranged from 1 to 17 trees ha- (9--247 m3 ha-1) and averaged 9 trees ha-1 (86.9 m3 ha-1). The study has shown that with RIL techniques, logging damage on the original stand can be significantly reduced by 50% compared with conventional logging. However, this 50% reduction in logging damage, was dependent on the felling intensity. With a felling intensity of 8 stems ha-1 or less, RIL techniques only damaged 25% of the original tree population whereas 48% were damaged with conventional techniques. Above this felling intensity (i.e. 8 stems ha-1), the effectiveness of RIL in limiting forest damage was significantly reduced, mainly because of the increasing felling damage. Moreover, the removal of all harvestable timber trees, leaving only few potential crop trees, will result in a seriously depleted residual stand. Because of the high damage involved by high felling intensity, leaving few potential crop trees, and the yield capacity of the remaining stand, acceptable harvesting volume will not be reached within the felling rotation of 35 years. It is concluded that silvicultural system based on diameter limit alone, as is the Indonesian system (TPTI), cannot be compatible with sustainability and more sophisticated harvested-selection rules are needed.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter359IDForest Ecology and Management0378-11273108Disturbance-induced density-dependent reproductive success in a tropical forest treeGhazoul, J.Liston, K.A.Boyle, T.J.B1998forest treesgene flowoutcrossingpollinationseed setfloweringfruit setpollen tubespopulation densityreproductionpopulation dynamicsnatural regenerationforest ecologytropical forestsplant densityThe reproductive output of Shorea siamensis, a widespread dipterocarp tree, was assessed in relation to disturbance and tree density at three sites in western Thailand during the 1996 and 1997 flowering seasons. The locations were similar except in disturbance history, which was reflected in decreasing tree density from undisturbed via moderately disturbed to disturbed sites. Hand pollination experiments showed S. siamensis to be partially self-incompatible due to differential pollen tube growth and abortion of inbred fruit. Although more than 90% of flowers from trees at all sites were pollinated, pollen tubes developed in only a small proportion of these flowers. Both pollen tube development and initial fruit production were highest at the undisturbed site. Many fruit, presumably selfed, were aborted during development at all sites, but significantly more fruit were aborted at the disturbed site, resulting in lowered production of mature fruit. S. siamensis was pollinated by small Trigona bees, which exhibited significant declines in intertree movements with increasing distance between flowering trees. As resource availability did not differ between sites, differences in mature fruit set were considered to be mediated by changes in pollinator foraging behaviour at different tree densities. Variation in seed set was negatively correlated with distance to nearest conspecific both within and between sites. At the two least disturbed sites observed seed set values corresponded with those expected by calculation. However, seed set at the disturbed site was significantly lower than expected. The results suggest that high reproductive success of S. siamensis is dependent upon cross-pollination, which, through pollinator behaviour, is a function of tree isolation. This species may thus be subject to the Allee effect, where population viability is reduced disproportionately with a decline in population size or population density. The implications of these results for population recovery and genetic structure following disturbance are discussed. ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter369THJournal of Ecology0022-0477386Mating system in Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz in ThailandLiengsiri, C.Boyle, T.J.B.Yeh, F.C1998Pterocarpus macrocarpusforest treesoutcrossingtree breedingmapsgenetic markersIsoenzymespopulation geneticspopulation densitygeographical distributionpolymorphismbroadleavesplant genetic resourcesThe mating system in 11 natural populations of Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz in Thailand was investigated based on the mixed mating model using 16 isozyme markers. Single-locus outcrossing rates (tm) ranged from 0.719 to 0.959. Both ts and tm revealed a geographic pattern with western populations exhibiting higher outcrossing than eastern populations. Low estimates of outcrossing rates in eastern populations could be attributed to habitat characteristic, degree of disturbance, density, and distribution of flowering mature trees. Individual tree outcrossing rates (tmi) indicated that reduced population density associated with disturbance could result in low tm in some eastern populationsArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter371THJournal of Heredity89Ecological certification of forest products: economic challengesKiker, C.F.Putz, F.E1997ecologycertificationforest productseconomicsWith increasing rates of forest depletion worldwide, it is increasingly being asked whether markets can play a role in mitigating the deleterious environmental and social impacts of forestry activities. The Forest Stewardship Council and others have proposed systems of ecological certification, where otherwise very similar products are viewed by consumers as different products because additional information on the products' history is provided. The certification assures the consumer that the products have been produced with practices that meet fundamental ecological and social standards. For ecological certification systems to be viable and deliver products to the market over the long term, the relationships among key components must evolve economically and institutionally. Consisting of local forest management firms, local certifying non-governmental organizations, international non-governmental organizations, timber and product markets, the ecological certification system transcends local forests and communities to international markets. Conceptually, the system is a series of principal-agent relationships. This paper, in addition to developing the concept of ecological certification, analyses the relationships among the many actors and the relationship of the actors to the forest.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter376THEcological Economics20Monitoring carbon sequestration benefits associated with a reduced-impact logging project in MalaysiaPinard, M.A.Putz, F.E1997monitoringcarbonlogging effectsThe Reduced-Impact Logging Project, a pilot carbon offset project, was initiated in 1992 when a power company provided funds to a timber concessionaire to implement timber harvesting guidelines in dipterocarp forest. The rationale for the offset is that when logging damage is reduced, more carbon is retained in living trees, and, because soil damage is minimized, forest productivity remains high. To estimate the carbon benefit associated with implementation of harvesting guidelines, a monitoring program was developed based on 1) field studies for measuring carbon stocks and flows; 2) a computer model of forest carbon dynamics for simulating various combinations of harvesting intensity and damage; and, 3) a projection model for calculating carbon balance over the project lifespan. Seventy-five percent of the carbon stored in this forest is in biomass, and of this, 59% is in large trees (>=60 cm diameter); consequently, reliable estimates of variables related to large trees are critical to the estimate of carbon benefits. Allometric methods for estimating belowground biomass are recommended over pit-sampling methods because of low cost-effectiveness of obtaining precise estimates of woody root biomass. Sensitivity analyses of variables used in the simulation model suggest that maintenance of ecosystem productivity has a large influence on long-term carbon storage in the forest. Projections of differences in carbon stores between the reduced-impact and conventional logging sites rely on assumptions about tree mortality, growth, and recruitment; published data for comparable sites in Malaysia are probably appropriate for estimating forest recovery from conventional but not reduced-impact logging. Continuing field work is expected to provide the data needed to evaluate assumptions of the models.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter377MYMitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change2Book review. Plant stems: physiology and functional morphologyPutz, F.E1997stemsmorphologyphysiologyArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter379MYAmerican Scientist85Book review. Ecology of an African rain forest: logging in Kibale and the conflict between conservation and exploitationPutz, F.E1997rain forestsecologyloggingconflictconservationforest exploitationreviewsArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter381MYConservation Biology0888-8892511Assessing forest canopies and understorey illumination: canopy closure, canopy cover and other measuresJennings, S.B.Brown, A.G.Sheil, D1999canopymeasurementhabitatsThe forest canopy is one of the chief determinants of the microhabitat within the forest. It affects plant growth and survival, hence determining the nature of the vegetation, and wildlife habitat. A plethora of different techiques have been devised to measure the canopy. Evaluation of the literature reveals confusion over what is actually being measured. This paper distinguishes two basic types of measurement: canopy cover is the area of the ground covered by a vertical projection of the canopy, while canopy closure is the proportion of the sky hemisphere obscured by vegetation when viewed from a single point. The principal techniques used to measure canopy cover, canopy closure, and a number of related measures are described and discussed. The advantages and limitations are outlined and some sampling guidelines are provided. The authors hope to clarify the nature of the measurements and to provide foresters with sufficient information to select techniques suitable for their needs.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter403MYForestry172Developing tests of successional hypotheses with size-structured populations, and an assessment using long-term data from a Ugandan rain forestSheil, D1999rain forestssuccessionanalysisIn 1947, W. J. Eggeling published an account of forest succession at Budongo, Uganda. This interpretation was based on a large-scale comparative plot study, performed in the 1930s and 1940s. This account, with its implication that species richness declines in late succession, endures as a controversial corner-stone in theories and disputes about community diversity. Data have now been collected over six decades from five of Eggeling's original plots. This paper evaluates Eggeling's successional interpretation of the Budongo vegetation. The first set of analyses assesses the consistency of the original data with the predictions of compositional progression and convergence implicit in Eggeling's model. The second analyses do the same for the time-series observations. A logical approach shows how temporal information may be derived from both between plot, and within plot, evaluations using sizestructured data. A Detrended-Correspondence-Analysis (DCA) of canopy-tree composition, from the original data, ranks the plots in perfect correspondence to Eggeling's successional sequence. A 'development-scoring' procedure is developed using passive-ordination against this sequence; this is then applied to composition by plot and stemsize class. Eggeling's original data are consistent with each prediction assessed. The analyses show compositional progression and apparent convergence across the plot series. and also progression and convergence within each plot. A monodominant-Cynornetra forest is the natural end-point of this progression. The time-series results, though in apparent agreement for one early successional plot, do not generally accord with Eggeling's ideas. The analyses illustrate a general means for evaluating explicit and implicit compositional trends in communities with structured populations.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter404UGPlant Ecology1140L'indonesie et ses feux de foretCossalter, C.Cauvin, B1998forestsArticles6p.frCIFOR Head Quarter410IDInformations - Forêt1; Fiche no. 566Ecological knowledge of regeneration from seed in neotropical forest trees: implications for natural forest managementGuariguata, M.R.Pinard, M.A1998ecologyregenerationseedsforest treestropical forestsforest managementWe discuss the main ecological factors that influence tree recruitment in neotropical moist-and wet forests within the context of timber management based on selective logging. We argue that setting aside protection areas in managed forests as a way to preserve ecological processes may not be sufficient to ensure sustainable levels of tree regeneration, and that a thorough understanding and application of tree seed ecology can help to refine management prescriptions. We review relevant aspects of tree reproductive biology, seed production and dispersal, spatial and temporal constraints on seed availability, disperser implications for biological sustainability in managed forests. Tree seed production can be influenced by the selective removal of neighbors of the same species (due to insufficient pollen transfer). flowering asynchrony, and attributes of the species sexual system. The extent to which an area is supplied by seed can be affected by dispersal mechanism, spatio-temporal limitations to seed dispersal, and tree size-dependent levels of seed production at the species level. Studies of vertebrate-disperser behavior and tree seed deposition in logged forest are scarce and warrant further attention in order to refine our understanding of the dependency of sustained timber production on vertebrate fauna. Although much remains to be learned about tree seed ecology in neotropical logged forests, the baseline information presented here may offer a starting point for developing ecological criteria for seed retention. Furthermore, it may contribute in improving ecologically-based management prescriptions in order to enhance or at least maintain sufficient levels of natural regeneration without the need to rely on artificial regenerationArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter417IDForest Ecology and Management0378-11271/2112The role of bamboo plantations in rural development: the case of Anji County, Zhejiang, ChinaRuiz Perez, M.Zhong, M.Belcher, B.Xie, C.Fu MaoyiXie, J1999rural developmentincomeeconomic developmentbamboosnon-timber forest productsBamboos have often been viewed as inferior products, labeled as the "poor man's timber". Development groups have proposed bamboo production as an opportunity for increasing the wealth of the low-income groups. This paper is a study of the household economy of 200 bamboo farmers in eight township of Anji County in China. The authors decribe the process of transformation of rural China from communes to the household responsibility system, the differentiated rate of development among farmers and the role of bamboo in that change. A multiple regression analysis was carried out to study the factors that influence farmers' incomes and their evolution. A warning is sounded against using bamboo production to target low-income group, as well as relying solely on aggr egated data when drawing conclusions on income disparities in China.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter419CNWorld Development0305-750X127Las plantas exogenas en la taxonomia mixteca (Mexico)Katz, E1998ethnobotanysocial impactplant introductionAfter the Spanish conquest of Mexico, many plants were introduced in the Mixtec Highlands as in the whole country. In this article, the names given to introduced plants in local Spanish and Mixtec are analysed from an ethnoscience point of view: How do new plants fit into indigenous classification? What do they reveal about social representations?ArticlesidCIFOR Head Quarter469CNEtnobotanicaActas 192Adoption du manioc par les Vili et les Yombe du Congo: innovations culinairesKatz, E1998non-timber forest productsArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter472CGTechniques et Culture31-32Pemanfaatan hutan oleh masyarakat kenyah di Kalimantan Timur: reaksi terhadap adanya El Nino, transmigrasi dan HTIColfer, C.J.P.Salim, A1998concessionsEl Ninoland useTulisan ini merupakan hasil dari survei rumah tangga yang dilakukan di desa Long Segar Kabupaten Kutai, Kalimantan Timur, pada bulan Juni 1997. Survei yang dilakukan mencakup periode tahun 1991-1997. Survei ini merupakan kelanjutan dari survei tata guna lahan yang pernah dilakukan pada tahun 1980 (1962-1980) dan tahun 1991 (1981-1991). Tujuan awal dari survei terbaru ini adalah untuk mengetahui perubahan tata guna lahan sejak dibukanya areal Hutan Tanaman Industri (HTI) di dekat Long Segar. Selain itu ingin diketahui bagaimana masyarakat menanggulangi bencana El Nino, karena pada periode 1991-1997 telah terjadi 2 bencana El Nino. Hasil survei menunjukkan perubahan yang terjadi tidak sebesar yang diperkirakan. Menebang hutan primer untuk dijadikan ladang tidak lagi populer, hutan tua sekunder kini menjadi hutan yang paling banyak digunakan untuk bercocok tanam. Rata-rata hasil panen turun dari 1.2 ton/ha menjadi kurang lebih 1 ton/ha. Luas ladang yang dikelola secara perorangan cenderung meningkat sementara luas ladang yang dikelola oleh keluarga cenderung tetap. Penggunaan ladang dataran rendah cenderung meningkat, kemungkinan ini merupakan respon terhadap kekeringan yang terjadi beberapa tahun belakangan ini. Masyarakat Long Segar mengalami hasil panen yang buruk selama 4 tahun berturut-turut di mana kekeringan merupakan salah satu penyebab utamanya, hal ini belum pernah dilaporkan terjadi pada studi-studi sebelumnya. Ketergantungan pada upah dari perusahaan telah meningkat secara nyata dibandingkan masa-masa sebelumnya. Penurunan kualitas hidup sehari-hari nampaknya belum sampai pada taraf yang mengkhawatirkan. Kepemilikan motor tempel (sarana transportasi air) dan gergaji rantai telah meningkat. Peranan wanita secara tradisional pada kegiatan-kegiatan pertanian tetap dipertahankan, walaupun jumlah buruh tani pria per keluarga rata-rata sedikit lebih banyak dibandingkan wanita, tetapi wanita memiliki kontibusi yang lebih besar terhadap produksi padi. Kami menyimpulkan bahwa masyarakat Long Segar dapat menanggulangi masalah-masalah yang ada dengan memanfaatkan secara kreatif kesempatan-kesempatan yang ada bila panen mereka gagal.Tetapi kami ingin tahu lebih lanjut apakah penyusutan hutan primer secara dramatis yang disebabkan oleh pihak-pihak lain (transmigrasi, penebangan hutan dan HTI) dapat berdampak terhadap iklim mikro Long Segar, dan pada jangka panjang potensial menimbulkan bencana. Tahun 1997 yang lalu diramalkan sebagai &ldquo;Ibu dari El Nino&rdquo;, dan ini terbukti dengan terjadinya kekeringan dan kebakaran hutan di beberapa daerah di Kalimantan dan Sumatera.ArticlesidCIFOR Head Quarter484CGManusia dan Lingkungan15th 5Agricultural expansion and deforestation: modelling the impact of population, market forces and property rightsAngelsen, A1999deforestationmodelspopulationsmarketsproperty rightsThis paper compares four different modelling approaches to agricultural expansion and deforestation, and explores the implications of assumptions about the household objectives, the labour market, and the property rights regime. A major distinction is made between population and market based explanations. Many of the popular policy prescriptions are based on the population approach, assuming subsistence behaviour and limited market integration. Within a more realistic-particularly for the long term effects-market approach, well-intentioned policies such as agricultural intensification programmes may boost deforestation. Many forest frontier contexts are also charaterized by forest clearing giving farmers land rights. Deforestation becomes an investment to the farmer and a title establishment strategy. Land titling and credit programmes may therefore increase deforestationArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter486CGJournal of Development Economics58Appropriateness of Vitex pubescens production for swidden agriculturistsde Jong, W.Utama, R.Rantan, D.Budhi, S.Kusmina, S.Sriwardani, F1998cultureeconomicsplantingshifting cultivationvitexAlthough the V. pubescens tree planting technology research is still in its early phase, the species appears to be appropriate to be grown by swidden farmers in West Kalimantan because of its wood and yield qualities. It also appears to be appropriate to be grown on imperata sites because of its fire resistance. In addition, the species appears appropriate for the culture and the economics of West Kalimantan swidden agriculturists. Considering that there are an estimated 35 million hectares of imperata lands in Asia (Garrity et al. 1996), the possible scope for this technology appears to be wide. If the technology is adapted to the socio-cultural and economic conditions of West Kalimantan farmers, it remains to be seen if it is appropriate elsewhereArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter488CGForest, Farm, and Community Tree Research Reports3Effect of soil amendment on early growth of Vitex pubescens stumpsKusmina, S.Budhi, S.Sriwardani, F.Utama, R.Rantan, D.de Jong, W1998non-timber forest productsvitexThis study demonstrated that the P3 treatmnet, with 1 volume of green charcoal per 5 volumes of soil, produces the best results for growing Vitex pubescens planting stock. Under this treatment, the medium reaches pH (H2O) of 7.04 and pH (KCI) of 6.75, the greatest number of shoots develop, these shoots have the largest length increment, and the greatest number of leaves develop. This leads to the conclusion that one volume of green charcoal mixed with five volumes of the soil available locally in possible production sites for Vitex pubescens is a suitable medium for the production of planting stock (Kusmina 1997). Treatment P1 (1:1) resulted in the largest increase of roots, but this had no significant influence on sprouting of shoots, length increment, or diameter increment of these shoots, or the number of leaves. It appears that the nutrient supply reached toxic levels under this treatment (Setyamidjaja 1986)ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter489CGForest, Farm, and Community Tree Research Reports3Effect of moisturizing treatments on germination of Vitex pubescens seedsSriwardani, F.Budhi, S.Kusmina, S.Utama, R.Rantan, D.de Jong, W1998effectsvitexseedsgerminationFrom the results it appears that the germination capacity is increased significantly as as result of the two treatments. The treatment soaking seeds in boiling water for 15 seconds had the best results, but these were not significantly different from the other treatment, soaking the seeds 24 hours in room-temperature water. There was, however, a difference between the response of the V.pubescens seeds to the two treatments in terms of germination rate. The different from the control treatment, whereas the difference between the control and soaking seeds in boiling water results in a very significant difference. In summary, the two treatments appear to have the same effect on the increment of the germination capacity of V.pubescens seeds. Both treatments also have a positive effect on the rate with which seeds germinate, but soaking the seeds in boiling water has a greater effect than soaking seeds in room-temperature water. Subjecting V. pubescens to any of these treatments significantly increaces the success rate of germination and the speed with which the seeds germinate. The treatment of soaking seeds for 15 seconds in boiling water is slightly more effective than soaking the seeds for 24 hours in room waterArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter490CGForest, Farm, and Community Tree Research Reports3Organising forestry research to meet the challenges of the information ageByron, R.N.Sayer, J.A1999forestryinformation technologyresearchCopyrighted 1999 by the Commonwealth Forestry Association. Reprinted by permission. More details are available on http://www.cfa-international.org/IFR.htmlThis paper examines the needs for forest science for the 21st century and ways of organising research to meet them. The world of the 21st century will be one of knowledge-based societies and globalised economies. The need for global stewardship of the environmental and social values of forests is finally being accepted. Yet pressures for economic efficiency and competitiveness are reducing the resources available to state forest agencies. Many countries are transferring management of production forestry to the private sector. Emerging technologies are greatly enhancing our ability to assess and monitor forest attributes, to process and disseminate information as well as to grow trees faster and to more narrow industrial specifications. Such changes will affect how forest science is organised, creating new demands for and new suppliers of, research. Funding responsibilities will be redistributed between the private and public sectors, The private sector can take over conventional forestry research on productivity enhancement, but it is unclear who will fund research supporting the public values of forests at the local, national and global levels.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/AByron9901.pdfArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter514CGInternational Forestry Review11Rethinking the causes of deforestation: lessons from economic modelsAngelsen, A.Kaimowitz, D1999agricultural pricescreditdeforestationeconomic growthexternal debtincomeinternational tradeoff-farm employmentpopulation pressurepolicystructural adjustmenttechnical progressmodelschangeland usereviewsThis article, which synthesizes the results of more than 140 economic models analyzing the causes of tropical deforestation, raises significant doubts about many conventional hypotheses in the debate about deforestation. More roads, higher agricultural prices, lower wages, and a shortage of off-farm employment generally lead to more deforestation. How technical change, agricultural input prices, household income levels, and tenure security affect deforestation-if at all-is unknown. The role of macroeconomic factors such as population growth, poverty reduction, national income, economic growth and foreign debt is also ambiguous. This review, however, finds that policy reforms included in current economic liberalization and adjustment efforts may increase the pressure on forests. Although the boom in deforestation modeling has yielded new insights, weak methodology and poor-quality data make the results of many models questionable.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter516CGWorld Bank Research Observer114Les peuplements d'Okoumes eclaircis au GabonFuhr, M.Nasi, R.Minkoue, J.M1998forest managementforest treessilviculturesustainabilitythinningcoastal areasThe continuous monitoring from 1988 to 1995 of thinned and control Okoumé stands in the coastal forest of Gabon helps to evaluate the relevance of silvicultural treatment with regard to sustainable management. The stands, almost even-aged, are grouped according to their ages. The homogeneity of structural features between future thinned and control stands is verified. The thinning, carried out in 1989, is a selective thinning in the upper storey. The average removal of basal area is 36 % in young stands (15 to 30 years old) and 21 % in older ones (37 to 50 years old). More than 80 % comes from supernumerary dominant Okoumé trees (average volume at 7 cm diameter removed in older stands : 145 M3/haj. Six years after thinning, young and old stands have reacted favourably. The dominant population is not significantly weakened. The gain on average current diameter annual increment of Okoumé trees stabilized around 0,2 to 0,3 cm/yr. Related to the increment before thinning, this gain is substantial for dominated and small dominant trees but minor for big dominant trees. At stand level, the better growth of remaining trees not offset the loss of basal area due to thinning. In stands where the Okoumé accounts for more than 80 % of total basal area, the removal of large usable trees is too sizeable for thinning after 35 years to be relevant. This may not be the case in more mixed forests where the Okoumé represents only 30-80 % of total basal area, and the relevance of thinning in such standsArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter544GABois et Forets des Tropiques256Effects of social economy and policies on production management systems: a case study of China's bamboo industriesZhong M.Fu MaoyiBelcher, B.Ruiz Perez, M1998bamboosindustrysocioeconomicspolicyproductionmanagementOver recent years, since reform and liberalisation, there has been rapid development of the bamboo industry in China that has brought about a series of economic policies and regulations favourable to economic development. Between 1981 and 1993, the area covered by bamboo forests expanded at a rate higher than the growth rate in forest-covered areas of the country. By 1996, the annual production value of primary products from bamboo resources reached 0.9 billion USD. The export value of manufactured bamboo products was US$ 35 million in 1995. Because 93% of bamboo forests in rural areas is collectively-owned and directly managed by farmers, the increase in yields and profits from bamboo forest products significantly improves incomes and living standards of rural people. Thus the bamboo industry has become an important means to reduce poverty among the rural population. The purpose of this study is to promote sustainable development of the bamboo sector by reviewing the development of bamboo industries in Anji County, Zhejian Province. The review analyses industry fundamentals, approaches and potential weaknesses and explores the direction and methods for its further development.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter546CNForestry Economics13Understanding local people's use of time: a pre-condition for good co-managementColfer C. J. P.Wadley, R.L.Venkateswarlu, P1999nature conservationcooperationfishinggender relationsIbanmanagementMelayumethodologyprotected areasseasonal behaviourshifting cultivationlocal populationDevelopment of management plans collaboratively with local people (e.g. co-management) is now an important means of protected area conservation. Yet formal protected area managers often need more specific information about the local people with whom they want to co-manage resources. We propose wider use of a method, which we describe, for studying time allocation, as an early step in the co-management of conservation areas. Use of time allocation data in co-management is illustrated from a conservation project in Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve (DSWR) in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Data from spot observations were analysed at three levels, namely those of 'macro-categories' (production, reproduction and leisure), an intermediate level (e.g. agriculture and f ood preparation), and that of individual activities (such as fishing, collection of forest foods and hunting). In the DSWR, the allocation of time differed according to gender, ethnicity and seasonality, throughout the year of the study. Our experience suggests that knowledge of such patterns of behaviour can help conservation area managers to understand local people's needs and desires better, improve managers' rapport with local people, and make better cooperative plans with local peopleArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter555IDEnvironmental Conservation126There is no place like home - why are there so few Swedish scientists in the international research institutes on agriculture and agroforestry?Persson, R.Rudebjer, P1998agroforestryinternational organizationsagricultureresearch institutesSweden contributes large amounts annually to the Consultative Group of International Agriculture Research Organizations (CGIAR), an important body for international Agriculture research. some SEK 80 milion was provided in 1998 alone. But surprisingly few swedish scientists work in International Agriculture Research. Swedish Universities have chosen the home ground and have little organized collaboration with the CGIAR. There is need to change this situation. A policy for international research collaboration is needed between the universities, particularly SLU and there is need for clearer career pathway for students with international interest. Only then can Sweden's financial contribution be matched by action by Swedish scientist in the future.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter557IDCurrents17/18Skogsforstorelsen fran Adam till Clinton=Deforestation from Adam to ClintonPersson R1998regenerationdeforestationThe article describes deforestation from early man to our time. During the last 8 000 years forests (very widely defined) may have decreased by about 40%. Deforestation began in West Asia, China, India and the Mediterranean followed by Europe and somewhat later by North America. It has now moved to the tropics at the same time as forest areas are actually increasing in temperate and boreal zones. In a historical perspective forest development can be described as going through several phases. As expected, there was a long phase with little deforestation, then usually a phase or phases with rapid deforestation, a phase of stabilisation and then, in developed countries, an increase in forest area. In Europe, for example, deforestation and recovery has oscillated with for example an increase in forest area during the period of the Black Death. Wars and powerless governments can result in both deforestation and recovery. Rapid deforestation on one period has often been connected to some kind of industry (e.g., mining). Not all forests in the Mediterranean were cleared in classical times as is often described. Forests were left in inaccessible areas and some forests recovered after the decline of the Romans. Much of the deforestation in West Asia and North Africa has taken place in this century.ArticlessvCIFOR Head Quarter559IDSkogshistorisk Tidskrift8Eucalyptus d'Australie: habitats naturels et dynamique d'evolutionCossalter, C.Vigneron, P.Brooker, M.I.H1999Eucalyptusevolutionnatural selectionThis paper describes the main ecological and morphological attributes of the eucalypts and related genus Corymbia using Pryor and Johnson's taxonomic classification (1971) and other recent works by Johnson (1976) and Hill and Johnson (1995) as guidelines. The main thrust is on what taxonomy can teach us on 'natural grouping'and 'evolution pathways' within the large and extremely diverse genus Eucalyptus. The description goes from the more primitive forms i.e. the bloodwoods (subgenus Blakella), to those natural groups which are better adapted to new environmental conditions i.e. the subgenus Symphyomyrtus (e.g. section Transversaria) and the stringybarks, blackbutts, ashes and peppermints (section Renantheria) of the Monocalyptus subgenus. Several examples show how the capacity of certain species to survive in a changing environment has been enhanced by the progressive transformation of key morphological attributes. Modern works on the systematics of eucalypts integrate the knowledge on ecology, chemistry, palaeontology, floral biology and genetics in addition to the more conventional studies on morphological traits and their adaptive values. The authors' conclusion is that more attention should be given to taxonomy when the purpose is to explore species' natural variation. Furthermore, it is the authors' opinion that the adaptive capacity of certain Eucalyptus species known for their good performances in plantations could have much to do with the geological history of their natural habitat. This is based on field observations. It seems that the best performing natural populations of several important tropical eucalypts, in terms of adaptation to new environments, are located in mountainous regions affected by the most recent geological events rather than in the geologically unchanged peneplains of northern Australia.ArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter565AULe Flamboyant49CIFOR - a newcomer to CGIARPersson, R1999international organizationsmanagementresearchCIFORThe process by which CIFOR became the 16th and newest research centre of the Consultative Group on Agricultural Research (CGIAR) in 1993 is described. CIFOR is located at Bogor in Indonesia and employs about 40 internationally recruited scientists including foresters, social scientists and economists. Multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary research is a hallmark of CIFOR's program. Its mission and research agenda are described. There are 6 core research projects: (1) causes of deforestation, forest degradation and changes in human welfare; (2) multiple resource management of natural resources; (3) plantation forestry on degraded or low potential sites; (4) conservation of biodiversity and genetic resources; (5) sustainable use and development of forest products by forest-dependent communities; and (6) local people, devolution and adaptive co-management of forests. Currently a major problem with forestry research in general is that the results are often not being used. Much of the research may be too 'academic' and research must become more problem-orientated. Another problem is priority setting and funding in forestry research. Donors have often invested heavily in the latest crisis or panacea and many assumptions behind these were wrong or at least only partially true. CIFOR needs to question the conventional wisdom, despite the difficulty in getting project funding for such an outcome. Forestry research will have an important role to play if there is a commitment to using the results. There must also be a strong commitment to doing something to reduce poverty, as it is often difficult to improve the forests if the well being of humans who depend on them is not improved. Setting priorities, using results, building capacity, involving stakeholders and so on indicates major changes occurring in forestry and forestry research. We appear to be in the middle of a paradigm shift in both forestry and forest research and CIFOR must be in the forefront of the new and challenging work arising from this shift.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter570AUCurrents19/20Commerce transfrontelier et integration regionale en Afrique Centrale: cas des produits forestiers non-ligneuxNdoye, O.Ruiz Perez, M1999non-timber forest productstradeexportsIn Central Africa, non-timber forest products (NTFP) are traded between Cameroon and neighbouring countries. kola nut (Cola acuminata) is traded between Cameroon, Nigeria and the Central African Republic. Wild mango (Irvingia gabonensis) is traded between Cameroon, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. Okok (Gnetum africanum) is traded between Cameroon and Nigeria. As for bush butter tree (Dacryodes edulis), there is some trade between Cameroon, Gabon and Congo. Transborder trade of NTFP is based on linguistic, cultural, environmental and monetary complementarities of the countries involved. This survey shows that the quantity of NTFP sold on export markets in the wet tropical forest zone of Cameroon is quite significant, and their value is assessed at 3.099 million French francs in 1995 and 5.033 million in 1996. This gives an indication of the importance of transborder trade between Cameroon and its neighbour countries, and the need to better assess the role of NTFP in diversification of exports. Profit margins of traders are higher for bush butter than for other NTFP. Main markets for bush butter fruit are New-Bell (Douala) and Mfoundi (Yaounde), where traders' margins are higher than the SMIG (guaranteed minimum wage). In addition, the survey shows that the merchants selling wild mango kernels in Abang-Minko border market (Gabon border) in 1995 and 1996 and in Kye-Ossi border market (Equatorial Guinea border) in 1996 also earned margins higher than the SMIG. Transportation is the highest cost in NTFP marketing, especially for markets close to borders. A better harmonisation of economic policies and improvement of infrastructure could increase mobility of goods and people, and foster regional integration in Central Africa.ArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter585AUArbres, Forêts et Communautés Rurales17Tropical forest diversity, environmental change and species augmentation: after the intermediate disturbance hypothesisSheil, D1999tropical forestsbiodiversityenvironmentchangeplant communitiespopulation dynamicsvegetationsimulation modelsIt is not simple to predict how environmental changes may impact tropical forest species diversity. Published hypotheses are almost invariably too incomplete, too poorly specified and too dependent upon unrealistic assumptions to be useful. Ecologist have sought theoretical simplicity, and while this has provided many elegant abstract concepts, it has hindered the attainment of more practical goals. The problem is not how to judge the individual hypotheses and arguments, but rather how to build upon and combine the many hard-won facts and principles into an integrated science. Controversy is inevitable when the assumptions, definitions and applications of a given hypothesis are unclear. Elegance, as an end in itself, has too often been used to justify abstract simplification and lack of operational definition. Clarifying and combining hypotheses while avoiding assumptions provides potentially more useful, if less elegant, stand-point. An appraisal of Connell's intermediate disturbance hypothesis, and its application to long-term observations from a Ugandan forest illustrates these concerns. Current emphases encourage ecologists to exclude consideration of environmental instability and non-pristine ecosystems. In reality, many environmental changes and ecological processses contribute to both the accumulation and erosion of diversity, at all spatial and temporal scales. Site histories, contexts, long-term processes, species-pool dynamics, and the role of people require greater emphasis. These considerations reveal that many environmental changes, even those associated with degradation, can lead to transient rise in species densities. Drawing on related studies, such as forest yield prediction, suggests that the formulation and calibration of simulation models provides the most tractable means to address the complexity of real vegetation. Simulation-based approaches will become increasingly useful both in unifying the study of vegetation dynamics and in providing improved predictive capacity. Quantification of the processes, scales and sensitivities of the dynamics of tropical forest communities remains a major challengeArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter594AUJournal of Vegetation Science10Tree diversity and conservation in logged rainforestSheil, D.Sayer, J.A.O&rsquoBrien, T1999forest treesbiodiversityloggingecologyhabitat destructionC. H. Cannon et al. report an increase in tree diversity 8 years after selective logging in Borneo. These results accord with theoretical expectations and with previous observations; however, the significance of these findings is debatable. Cannon et al.'s analyses are confounded by differences in stem counts per sample and although Cannon et al. note the value of rarefaction as an alternative approach they do not provide the appropriate evaluations. Thus, the finding of a general increase in stem-diversity remains unsubstantiated. A greater concern arises from the assertion by Cannon et al. that such diversity patterns have some previously unrecognised conservation significance. Species are not equivalent, and species counts do not represent any inherent conservation value or provide a measure of ecological integrity. It is no paradox that habitat deterioration may be marked by a transient rise in stem diversity. Selective logging is a relatively nonselective agent of short-term tree mortality. Stems from all the species that are present before logging will usually persist at reduced densities after harvesting is completed. In addition, logging increases the heterogenity of forest microhabitats and provides considerable space for colonisation by immigrant species. These additions are predominantly good dispersers and "disturbance dependent" species rather than the more vulnerable and restricted taxa which characterise old-growth vegetation. Short periods tell us little about the long-term maintenance of species in managed systems where some stems have the potential to live for centuries. While production forests have numerous conservation values any benefits from post-logging increases in tree diversity remain doubtful.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter595AUScience284Woodcraft markets in ZimbabweBraedt, O.Standa-Gunda, W2000craftsforest productsmarketsstructural adjustmentwoodtourism*Study supported by CIFORTo understand the potential role of forest products in household livelihoods, a study of the woodcraft industry in Zimbabwe was initiated. The woodcraft industry has increased steadily since the late 1980s. The factors driving the upsurge in the woodcraft industry are: (1) the increased demand by tourists; and (2) the need by rural households to find cash income sources. The structural adjustment programme, with one of its emphases being the decontrol of the currency, has probably played a key role in driving the rise in woodcraft production. Although all markets have a committee and all have some basic rules governing their operations, few rules are strictly enforced. There is also a lack of enforcement of the national legislation that governs the use of the tree resources. The local traditional rules governing resource use from the commons are also not strong. Given the problems in the national legislation and in the local rules, it is difficult to see how the resource can be managed on a sustainable basis. It appears that the benefits from the industry may not be substantial given the lack of interest in the market from outsiders, and the various elites who could monopolise the trade due to the lack of enforcement structures in place. In communal areas, where deforestation is advanced, the selective use of certain species for carving is likely to drive the species to local extinction. The carvers are likely to switch to different tree species to maintain their production levels.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter711ZWInternational Tree Crops Journal410A concerted approach to una de gato development in Perude Jong, W.Melnyk, M.Alfaro, L.Rosales, M.Garcia, M2000forest products industriesmarketsmedicinal plantsUncarianon-timber forest productsUncaria tomentosa and U. guianensis appear to hold a potential to become an important export commodity and a source of income for small farmers in the tropical forest belt of the country. Both species have been important in traditional healing in many South American countries. They contain about sixty substances that are being tested widely for possible medical treatments. Uncaria tomentosa has been traded from Peru since 1994 until it reached a peak export of 726 t in 1996. Despite the general discourse on the potential of species, such as these Uncaria spp., the many stakeholders with some interest in these species do not co-ordinate their activities sufficiently to enhance sustained income for the country and the rural poor. At the national level, there has been pressure on the government to implement legislation to prohibit the sales of the raw material of these species, in order to capture larger shares of benefits for the national economy. Initially false conservation arguments were used to stop collection from the wild, as there is sufficient evidence to argue that at current harvesting levels there is no threat to the two species. Regional government agencies have promoted the production of the two species without having a clear picture of future market development, allowing the possibility that much of the future production cannot be sold. Both actions may possibly negatively affect the benefits that accrue to local collectors or producersArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter714PEInternational Tree Crops Journal410La commercialisation des produits forestiers non-ligneux dans la zone de forêt humide du CamerounRuiz Perez, M.Ndoye, O.Eyebe, A2000economicsnon-timber forest productscopy not availableArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter724CMArbres, Forêts et Communautés Rurales19Understanding patterns of resource use and consumption: a prelude to co-managementColfer, C.J.P.Wadley, R.L.Salim, A.Dudley, R.G2000usesforestsfisheriesresource managementconsumptionlocal peopleprotected areasnatural resourcesfoodshouseholdsFor co-management of conservation areas to be effective, detailed information on local people's use of natural resources is essential. One method to obtain some of that information, a household record keeping study, is given. It is simple to implement and analyse, and provides useful, quantitative data on resource use and income levels. The method and present data derived from three studies of Melayu and Iban communities in and around the Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, are described. These data show the strong reliance of Melayu and Iban peoples on fisheries and forests respectively, and suggest avenues for working with both groups to manage and conserve local resources.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter739CMBorneo Research Bulletin0006-780631Setting critical limits to ecological indicators of sustainable tropical forestryGeisler, C.C.Ghazoul, J.Hellier, A2000criteriaforest ecologyforest managementindicatorsbiodiversityforest ecologytropical forestsCopyrighted 2000 by the Commonwealth Forestry Association. Reprinted by permission. More details are available on http://www.cfa-international.org/IFR.htmlEcologically sustainable forest management necessitates monitoring forest conditions and the environmental impacts of management activities. Through adaptive management, assessments that reveal excessive environmental impacts require revision of the management plan to ensure that ecological functions and attributes of forest ecosystems are maintained within acceptable limits. But how are these acceptable limits determined? And how are 'normal' or 'natural' conditions defined when these are temporally or spatially variable? In order to determine the desired biological state of a forest, indicator baseline values, together with some measure of variability under natural conditions are needed. A useful Ecological Criteria and Indicator set should therefore provide objective standards for evaluation, and these standards should account for spatial and temporal variation in indicator states as well as resilience to anthropogenic disturbance. A framework is presented within which the standards for assessing ecologically sustainable forest management might be defined. Published literature is used to determine the responses of selected indicators to natural and anthropogenic disturbances. Using these values, predictions can be made on expected ecological conditions of a sustainably managed forest given information on forest type, disturbance intensity and time since disturbance.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/AGeisler0001.pdfArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter745CMInternational Forestry Review42Forestry for sustainable development: making it happenGregersen, H.Lundren, A.Byron, R.N1998sustainabilitydevelopmentforestrySustainable development is a process of meeting the continuing, evolving needs of people while protecting and enhancing the resource base on which all production of goods and environmental services depends. Good forest management is an essential part of the sustainable development process. Given the need to share the benefits from forests, and given the uncertainty adaptive management approach is needed, one that lets us most easily adapt if we find in the future that we are on a path of sustainable development.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter178CMJournal of Forestry396A methodology to analyze divergent case studies of non-timber forest products and their development potentialRuiz Perez, M.Byron, R.N1999non-timber forest productsmultivariate analysiscase studiesdata analysistropical forestsmethodologyDebate currently rages over the development potential of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) in tropical forests. Proponents of particular "solutions" can refer to evidence (case studies, data) which tend to support their interpretation of events and relationships. Recommendations thus frequently depend on how data are classified and interpreted. Inaccurate or incomplete classification leads to defective subsequent theories, models, and recommendations. We present a method for classifying very divergent case-study data, and some initial results as a basis for general understanding of key factors that influence a given result. Crucial issues determining outcomes of NTFP development include the nature of government involvement, distribution of property rights, the ability of local people to claim and enforce such rights, market transparency, and pressure on the resource. This paper concludes with suggestions for further testing and development of the methodology.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter338CMForest Science145A Methodology to analyze divergent case studies of non-timber forest products and their development potentialRuiz Perez, M.Byron, R.N1997data analysisdevelopmentmethodologynon-timber forest productsDebate currently rages over the development potential on Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) in tropical forests. Proponents of particular "solutions" can refer to evidence (case, studies, data) which tend to support their interpretation of events and relationships. Recommendations thus frequently depend on how data are classified and interpreted. Inaccurate or incomplete classification leads to defective subsequent theories, models, and recommendations. We present a method for classifying very divergent case-study data, and some initial results as a basis for general understanding of key factors that influence a given result. Crucial issues determining outcomes of NTFP development include the nature of government involvement, distribution of property rights, the ability of local people to claim and enforce such rights, market tranparency and pressure on the resource. This paper concludes with suggestions for further testing and development of the methodology.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter574CMForest Science145Dynamique de la forêt mixte à diptérocaroacées de basse altitude avant et après traitement sylvicoleNguyen-The NFavrichon, V.Sist, P.Houde, L.Fauvet, N1999Dipterocarpaceaelogging effectsmortalityproductivityAs part of the STREK project, forest dynamics were analysed to assess the impact of logging, especially relatively environment-friendly techniques, and the potential benefits of silvicultural regimes that favour the growth of commercial species. The study was mainly focused on growth and mortality rates, especially concerning species of the Dipterocarpaceae family, which represents 25% of the trees in the stand and literally all of the commercial species. Productivity of the primary forest was found to be lower than 1m3/ha/year. Dipterocarpaceae species had the highest growth rates. Growth and mortality rates were dependent on the stand density, tree diameterm the size and shape of the canopy, which is an indicator of between tree-competition. The conditions were most detrimental to small-diameter trees. Two years after logging, productivity in the logged plot was as low as in the primary forest. The reforestation process in not yet under way. However, forest degradation to the benefit of Dipterocarpaceae species prompted a productivity gain of 3 to 5 m3/ha/year. (O)ArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter449IDBois et Forets des Tropiques1259Objectifs et methodologieBertault, J-G.Sist, P.Nguyen-the N1999databasesexperimental designmethodologyrain forestsregenerationsilviculturetechniquesproductivitysustainabilitysilviculturetreesSTREK is an acronym of "Development of Silvicultural Techniques for the Regeneration of logged-over rain forets in East Kalimantan". The objectives of this project were to develop management rules leading to sustained productivity of the forests in this area, which are the main suppliers of wood industry in Indonesia. This project was scheduled over seven-year period (1989-1996). In the Berau PT. INHUTANI I concession, two sites of 1 000 ha each were selected. On the first site, logged in 1978-1979, six plota of 4 ha each were set up. Two different silvicultural treatments were tested, with 2 control plots. On the second site, covered by primary forest until 1991, 12 plots of 4 ha each were set up. Three control plots marked out and three logging treatments with three replications were implemented: two Reduced-Impact Logging Techniques (RIL) with two diameter limits (>50 and >60 cm) and one called "conventionsl". In these plots, all tree dbh > 10 cm were measured, numbered and mapped on a scale of 1 : 200. A database comprising about 40 000 trees was set with botany, typology and pedology as well as silvicultural data, which is a prerequisite to carry out further and yield studies.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter576IDBois et Forets des Tropiques1259L'adaption de l'amengement forestier a des situations diversesBertrand, A.Babin, D.Nasi, R1999decision makingforest managementdevelopment programmesExamples are used to illustrate the different present-day forms of forest management, based first and foremost on decision-making procedures governing management choices rather than on technical criteria governing the choice and implementation of programmes. These examples range from the Gabonese forest to Madagascar to the arid regions of the Sahel in Mali and Niger. They also involve different spatial scales ranging from the village forest to large forested areas, and then to the nationwide dimension. Last of all, they incorporate various targets - timber production, raffia exports, biodiversity conservation - and take many different objectives into account (livestock raising, honey, etc.)ArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter582GABois et Forets des Tropiques3261Evalution et diversite du concept d'amenagement forestierBertrand, A.Babin, D.Nasi, R1999decision makingforest managementsustainability"Management means allocating and distributing limited resources to achieve clearly defined targets". This definition helps towards a clear summary of the way ideas to do with forest management have been developing. Areas of concern have been gradually shifting form technical assignments (resource allocation and distribution) towards the issue of defining management goals (who? how?). This development leads from sustained timber production to the sustainable management of forest ecosystems against a backdrop of land planning. considering the many people involved in forest management, and their concerns, which all carry the same kind of weight, it is necessary to single out the problem of decision-making procedures. Management must reconcile differing, not to say contradictory, goals in one and the same area. Managing a forest thus means, first and foremost, a successful negociationArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter583GABois et Forets des Tropiques2260Crise economique et changements politiques en Indonesie: premiers effets sur le secteur forestierSunderlin, W.D1999economic crisesforestryIndonesia's economy receded in 1998, and the national currency has lost more than 70% of its value. Expansion of agriculture is one of the main ways to overcome the crisis: 1) relatively independent of the dollar economy; 2) provision of basic needs commodities; 3) reduction of unemployment; 4) reduction of costly food imports; 5) Indonesian commodities cheaper in the export market - costs in rupiahs, earnings in US$. Another means is access to loans from IMF. The author reviews the likely effects on the forest sector. (1) Decreased demand for Indonesian plywood from main importers (Japan, South Korea and Taiwan) is largely compensated by increased demand from other countries and Malaysia's decision to restrict its wood product exports. (2) Expansion of agriculture will occur partly at the expense of forest cover: spontaneous clearing by farmers, and large scale clearings for agro-industry plantations, mainly oil palm, then cocoa, coffee, rubber trees, pepper, as well as shrimp ponds in mangroves. (3) Transmigration will probably not slow down, foreign aid compensating for the decline of State aid. (4) Unemployed people in the urban sector migrate to rural areas, and young people in the rural areas remain there which may increase pressure on forests for three reasons: a) incentives to expand plantations for export; b) incentives to produce food crops locally (rice, maize, soya) to reduce imports; c) shortage of capital for inputs, that may encourage extensive agriculture. (5) Expansion of mining in forest areas (coal, iron, and nickel) may lead to degradation of important protection forests. (6) The likely slowdown of major road programmes will reduce their direct and indirect impacts on forests. (7) Policy changes as a prerequisite to IMF loans will have negative effects on forest conservation when they encourage plantations for export (oil palms). (8) President Habibie has launched a wave of policy reforms to remedy former abuses in granting timber concessions, and the resulting forest deterioration. In addition, new laws should promote community-based forest management. In conclusion, the economic crisis appears a threat to Indonesia's forests, in view of the trend to increase foreign exchange earnings through the export of forest and agricultural products.ArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter592IDBois et Forets des Tropiques2260The influence of research and publications on conventional wisdom and policies affecting forestsSpilsbury, M.J.Kaimowitz, D2000forest policyresearchlinkagedecision makingFunding agencies expect policy researchers to show that their efforts have a measurable impact. This poses a considerable challenge. It was traditionally thought that research influences policy directly and that specific policies can be traced back to particular research findings. However, many analysts have now come to regard the link between research and policy as more diffuse: research induces changes in "conventional wisdom" (the set of dominant paradigms at a given moment regarding the desired ends of policy and the means of achieving them) and "policy narratives" (simplifying assumptions about the problem to be addressed and the approach to be taken), which in turn influence policy outcomes. Given the bewildering array of factors that influence policy-makers' decisions, it would be naïve to overestimate the role of knowledge acquisition in that process. A role exists nonetheless. This article combines a theoretical discussion of how policy-makers utilize research with a pragmatic attempt to find out what research has been influential. Between December 1997 and March 1998, the authors asked forest policy experts by e-mail which publications influenced international and national debates on policies that affect forests. The survey elicited 162 replies. The article analyses those responses in the context of the broader debate on the link between research and policy.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter730IDUnasylva20351Developing swidden agriculture and the threat of biodiversity lossde Jong, W1997biodiversityshifting cultivationlossesIndonesia has the world&rsquo;s third largest area of tropical forest. These forests are treasured for their high biodiversity, a result of the country&rsquo;s unique geographic positioning, but also as an economically important natural resource. Although the early decades of accelerated timber exploitation in Indonesia demonstrated little concern for the sustainability of forest resources, recently a shift to genuine conservationist forest policies can be observed. These new policies, however, mainly relate to the forestry sector and much less to the ongoing conflicts between the state and forest-dependent people. It is still a commonly held belief that swidden agriculturists are responsible for about half of Indonesia&rsquo;s annual deforestation. In order to solve this problem the government has defined a number of measures that attempt to convert swidden agriculturists into sedentary cultivators. In this paper these measures are discussed, and they are juxtaposed against new insights about the nature of the dynamics of swidden agriculture and the role that forest management plays in this agricultural method. The official schemes propose only some sort of plantation development, which significantly reduces biodiversity in the agricultural landscape. With an example of swidden agriculture from West Kalimantan, including an important forest management component, this paper demonstrates that developing existing agriculture-forest management regimes holds the potential to bring economic development to the region, while biodiversity is conserved.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter98IDAgriculture, Ecosystems and Environment2/362A generic plant functional attribute set and grammar for dynamic vegetation description and analysis.Gillison, A.N.Carpenter, G1997descriptionsanalysisvegetationConventional method of vegetation description rarely convey the behavioural of response based information needed to describe effectively the world's vegetation for conservation and management purposes. The information required for these purposes may be derived from generic set of plant functional attributes (PFAs) as described in this paper. A grammar provides a syntactic rule base for generating and comparing individuals model or modi based on specific PFA combiantions. The method facilitaties rapid and uniform assessment of plant response to variation in the physical environment at differing spatial scales independently of species. This is illustrated by local, regional and global case studiesArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter200IDFunctional Ecology611Estimating sapling vitality for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Russian KareliaOreshkin, D.G.Skovsgaard, J.P.Vanclay, J.K1997Pinus sylvestrisA new method is proposed for estimating vitality or growth potential for saplings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), based on height, diameter and height increment. A two-stage process was used to establish the vitality index. The logarithms of height, diameter and height increment were regressed against age, to adjust for the wide range of ages present in our data (c. 10 000 saplings with ages spanning 4-50years). Then principal component analysis was used to obtain coefficients, which were, in turn, standardized on each axis to provide a vitality index scaled in standard deviations. This standarized scale allows the rank of an individual in the population to be assessed, and draws attention to possible outliers. The use of age-adjusted residuals ensured that the estimator was independent of age, and stable over a wide age range. The first principal component indicates if a sapling is relatively tall (weight=0.50, thick (w=0.5) or fast-growing (w=0.5) or fast-growing (w=0.7) for its age. Most of the information is contained in the first principal component, but the second component, which explains about 10% of the variance, appears to offer some utility as an indicator of 'acceleration' due to changing conditions. The resulting measures of vitality have been useful for research and management in the dry lichen-moss pine forest in Russian Karelia, but are specific to this species, locality and ecotype. Further research and site-specific data are necessary to adapt the system to other situations.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter273IDForest Ecology and Management0378-112794Regeneration success and early growth of forest stands and selected papers from an IUFRO Conference held in Copenhagen in June 1996Skovsgaard, J.P.Vanclay, J.K1997regenerationforest treesTen papers from the full proceedings of the above conference providing results of more complete work on the diverse aspects of regeneration and early growth. The conference discussed the theme broadly and encompassed theoretical and applied aspects, plantation and 'close-to-nature' silviculture, natural and plantation forests, in tropical, temperate and boreal zones. The papers contained in this special issue of Forest Ecology and Management reflect this broad perspective in both species and regional focus.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter274IDForest Ecology and Management0378-1127297Accuracy and precision of two laser dendrometersSkovsgaard, J.P.Johannsen, V.K.Vanclay, J.K1998measurementdendrometersinstrumentsdiameterheightTwo commercial laser dendrometers were tested under controlled and field conditions, and contrasted with alternative instruments. Testing focused on height Measurement, but also considered distance and remote diameter measurements. Both laser instruments gave very precise estimates, but showed some bias. Users of these and other 'high-tech' instruments are reminded that precision is not synonymous with accuracy. Users should not become complacent about the submillimetre readout, but should calibrate instruments to examine if users' accuracy requirements are satisfied. Instruments may need to be re-calibrated each measurement season and after any mishandling.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter280IDForestry271Dynamics of the agricultural frontier in the Amazon and savannas of Brazil: analyzing the impact of policy and technologySmith, J.Winograd, M.Gallopin, G.Pachico, D1998agriculturesavannaspolicytechnologyenvironmental degradationWhile many goverment policies stimulating deforestation have been reserved, private sector lobbies for uncontrolled logging and soybean export corridors threaten the Amazon. Under a favorable scenario (macroeconomic stabilization, controlled logging and road building, sustainable technologies, global environmental markets) reconversion of natural habitat could be 30% lower than under unfavorable policies and technologies, without sacrificing productionArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter391BREnvironmental Modeling & Assessment3Les peuplements d'Okoumés au Gabon: leur dynamique et croissance en zone côtiere.Nasi, R1997La mesure et le suivi annuel, entre 1987 et 1994, de 34 parcelles d'âge connu (représentant 22 ha et près de 14 000 arbes) établies dans des peuplements d'Okoumés de la zone côtière du Gabon permet de préciser la dynamique de ces formations végétales pauci spécifiques. Ces peuplements sont issus de colonisation à des vitesses variables de savanes ou de défrichements culturaux en l'absence de feux. Leur composition floristique varie avec l'âge mais toutes présentent un fonds floristique commun d'une dizaine d'espèces qui constitute plus de 90% des individus recensés. La surface terrière augmente et la densité diminue avec l'âge pour se stabiliser autour de valeurs «limites» vers 40-45 ans. La mortalité, très forte dans les jeunes parcelles, diminue avec l'âge. Elle affecte essentiellement lestiges de faible diamètre appartenent à l'étage dominé. La mort de dominants âgés constitue un phénomène rare (1% des morts et 0,006% de l'ensemble des tiges) méme pour des parcelles âgées de 60 ans. Les mesures d'accroissement en circonférence et surface et surface terrière montrent que l'essentiel de la croissance est le fait du peuplement d'Okoumés dominants. En fonction des valeurs de croissance obtenues, il faut environ 75 ans pour produire un Okoumé « moyen » exploitable de 70 cm de diamètre dans les conditions d'Oyane. Les résultats sont comparés avec ceux obtenus dans des formations végétales similaries dans le centre du Gabon par le project ECOFAC.ArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter399GABois et Forets des Tropiques251Regional conference for Africa on the conservation, management and utilization of plant gums, resins and essential oils, Nairobi, Kenya, 6-10 October 1997Katz, E1997conferencesnon-timber forest productsconservationusesArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter401GAJournal d'Agriculture Traditionnelle et de Botanique Applique139Moving to local control of woodland resources - Can CAMPFIRE go beyond the mega-fauna?Campbell, B.M.Byron, R.N.Madzudzo, Pauline H.E.Matose, F.Wily, L1999forest productsmarketsDevolution of authority over natural resource management is now well advanced for the mega-fauna in Zimbabwe, through the CAMPFIRE program. We ask whether models like CAMPFIRE can be applied to a broader spectrum of woodland resources. Problems in applying CAMPFIRE to woodland resources relate to a legal and policy framework that is not enabling to local management; weakened local institutional structures; a high of differentiation with respect to woodland resource use within communities; problems of defining resource user groups; and, the potentially low market value of woodland products. In identifying circumtances where CAMPFIRE may be applied succesfully to woodland resources, economic, sociological, and ecological circumtances must be considered.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter696GASociety and Natural Resources512A simple graphical method for the comparisons of mortality, recruitment and other count defined 'event-rates'Sheil, D1999changeforest treesmortalitygerminationdiseasesrecruitmentResearchers frequently compare rates of change based on counts (e.g. mortality, germination, infection, recruitment). The estimation of mortality and recruitment rates from tree census data have been discussed elsewhere. However, rather than estimating absolute rates, researchers may often need to determine whether two rates are significantly different. Most biometric texts and computer packages are not very helpful on this question, and guidance is not readily sifted out of the more technical literature. This note is intended to address three related issues: 1) to inform researchers who are not familiar with the appropriate tests, 2) to present an approach that avoids analytical complexity, and 3) to provide some feel for the power of the tests. This third point should assist in experimental design by providing guidance on the sample-sizes and differences required for significance to be detected. The simple and accurate graphical models provided will be of use to biologists who work with count-based changes. The number of observations required to detect significant rate differences may surprise some researchers.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter402GAJournal of Tropical Forest Science111Additional notes on Planchonia brevistipitata kusw. (Lecythidaceae)Kartawinata, K1998LecythidaceaePlanchonia brevistipitata Kkusw. is redescribed and Barringtonia belagaensis P. Chantaranothai is reduced to a synomym of this speciesArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter439GAReinwardtia311FLORES: for exploring land use options in forested landscapesVanclay, J.K1998forestslandscapeland useIncentives intended to stimulate better land use practices often don't work as intended, and can have undesirable side effects that were not foreseen. How can we better equip policy makers and their advisors to envisage fully the efficacy and consequences of initiatives? One way is to provide a decision support system. The formulation and construction of such a system offers other benefits: it would make existing information more accessible, facilitate hypotheses testing, and foster collaboration between researches working on these issues. FLORES is such a system being develop through a partnership coordinated by the Center for International Forestry ResearchArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter454GAAgroforestry Forum19Implications of the Kyoto Protocol on forest management in developing countries: paying for non-commercial forest valuesMacDicken, K.G1999forest managementdeveloping countriescarbonArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter581GAIMPACTS (integrating Modelling and Policy Aspects of Terrestrial Ecosystems in Southeast Asia)1410-067623Between danger and opportunity: Indonesian and forests in an era of economic crisis and political changeSunderlin, W.D1999forest policypoliticschangeeconomic crisesPolicy aiming to improve the conservation and management of tropical forests are often based on the assumption of political economic stability. Yet some of the most important changes in conditions affecting tropical forests can occur when the political and economic climate changes in abrupt, unpredicted, and largely uncontrolled manner. This fact is illustrated through preliminary, largely media-based documentation of changes underway in Indonesia. It is unclear, as yet, whether the effects of the sudden transformation on the forest sector in this country will be largely positive or negativeArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter590IDSociety and Natural Resources612On the nature of keystone species: (Response to Khanina's article "Determining keystone species" - 1998)Vanclay, J.K1999speciesThere is not abstract for this publication.http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol3/iss1/resp3/index.htmlArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter602IDEcology and Society13Alineacion de fuerzas en torno al manejo forestal sosteniblePutz, F.E2000forest managementsustainabilityCopy availableArticlesesCIFOR Head Quarter685IDBolfor: Projecto de Manejo Forestal Sostenible21Balancing politics, economics and conservation: the case of the Cameroon forestry law reformEkoko, F2000nature conservationforestry lawchangepoliticseconomicsdevelopmentThe formulation of Cameroon's 1994 Forestry Law was influenced by the World Bank, the Government of Cameroon and French politicians, as well as by logging companies and individual Cameroonian politicians. Development objectives, direct material interests and political concerns motivated their actions. However, as the result of a flawed formulation process, conflicting interests and weak government administrative capacity, the law has not been fully implemented and may not be. An analysis of the 1994 Forestry Law suggests that the success of future policies will depend on the willingness of actors to defend their interests, the balance of power at the time, and the ability of the Executive Branch to mediate among the different interests in each case.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter813CMDevelopment and Change0012-155X131Ecological characterization of tree species for guiding forest management decision in seasonally dry forests in Lomerío, BoliviaPinard, M.A.Putz, F.E.Rumíz, D.Guzman, R.Jardim, A1999biodiversitydeciduous forestsforest managementharvestingloggingtropical forestssilvicultural systemsfoodsmammalswildlifeWhen the goal of natural forest management is to maintain the biodiversity and ecological integrity of the forest while harvesting timber, the silvicultural systems employed must promote timber production and reduce negative impacts on whole timber resources. To foster development of such a system in a seasonally dry tropical forest in Lomerío, Bolivia, we classfied tree species according to their relative timber value, importance as food for vertebrate frugivores and vulnerability to population declines when subjected to logging. We used this classification to identify a management system appropriate for the commercial species and to evaluate the compatibility of the system with the regeneration requirements of tree species that produce important food for mammalian wildlife. About half of the tree species in the site are commercially valuable for their timber and a similar proportion are considered of value as food for wildlife. A tree species rating for vulnerability to disturbance appeared to be independent of both timber and wildlife values. A silvicultural system that includes even-aged groups of trees within an uneven-aged matrix appears more suitable to the multiple goals of management in this forest than either an even-aged or uneven-aged (single tree selection) management system.ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter477BOForest Ecology and Management0378-1127113Dynamics of secondary forests in slash-and-burn farming: interactions among land use types in the Peruvian AmazonSmith, J.van de Kop, P.Reategui, K.Lombardi, I.Sabogal, C.Diaz, A1999agriculturedeforestationeconomic analysisfarmersfarming systemsimprovementliving conditionspolicysecondary forestsshifting cultivationsmall farmstechnologyThe regeneration of secondary forests (SF) on previously cleared land in the Amazon is a promising development within the generally pessimistic scenario about tropical deforestation. This has stimulated efforts to augment the value of SF to farmers to induce them to increase the area in SF. The objective of this paper was to document the regeneration of SF in slash-and-burn agriculture and to develop policy and technological recommendatios for conserving forest cover on small farms and improve farmer welfare. The dynamics of SF in slash-and-burn farming were studied by investigating changes in the role of SF with frontier development. Farm survey data form a colonist settlement area in the Peruvian Amazon were analyzed by using a recursive econometric model. Results confirmed that substantial areas of SF exist on slash-and-burn farms during the first few deacdes after settlement. As a result, over third of the farm area is under forest cover. This implies that deforestation in slash-and-burn farming may be less than previously believed. Soil recuperation is the most important reason for the existence of SF in slash-and-burn agriculture. During the relatively early stages of frontier development studied in this paper, fallow periods increased over time as site productivity declined, giving rise to secondary forests. Pastures lowered forested areas on farms and appear to impede the regeneration of SF. Commercial exploitation of SF products was minimal and declines with frontier development. The conclusions show that improved short-rotation fallows may recuperate the soil at the expense of forest cover, particularly in areas where most of the forest cover consists of SF. This conflict could be resolved by technologies that enrich SF and reinforce its multiple functions, including soil recuperation. Reduction of extensive cattle ranching may be a more effective way to conserve forest cover in slash-and-burn farming than technologies for shortening fallow periods. A 'quantum leap' in the benefits of forested land will be required if increases in forest cover are to be compatible with farmer welafre. This is likely to require innovative approaches, such as commercialization of the environmental services of forests. The results of this research could be potentially shift efforts to control deforestation away from slash-and-burn farmers, thus reducing the perceived conflict between forest conservation and the livelihood of poor people.Articles85-98enCIFOR Head Quarter517PEAgriculture, Ecosystems and Environment2/376Les composantes de l'amenagement forestier et leurs incidences financieresBertrand, A.Babin, D.Nasi, R1999forest managementfinanceThe various factors common to forest management schemes are examined : sustained output, biodiversity conservation, and multiple uses. These factors are combined in different ways from case to case. Consideration of them in the management process includes specific kinds of financial impact for each factor. The diverse range of management situations must therefore lead to properly adapted financial set-ups. The planned generalization of the implementation of forest management schemes will involve introducing economies of scale and reducing unit management costs. This represents a tremendous challenge for research. Likewise, the generalization of management schemes will entail a basic redefinition of the duties of forest administration agentsArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter584PEBois et Forets des Tropiques3261Baños terapéuticos y posparto entre los indígenas de la Mixteca Alta (México)Katz, E1998non-timber forest productsArticlesfrCIFOR Head Quarter353PEParodiana (Buenos Aires)1-210Development of RAPD protocol for Shorea laevisSiregar, U. J.Sudarmonowati, E.Sri Hartati, N1998biochemical techniquesDnagenetic diversitypolymerase chain reactionShorea LaevisTo study genetic diversity of Shorea leavis using RAPD, optimization of the method is necessary to obtain good resolution. Two kinds of PCR conditions, emplyoing 109 random primers of Kit B, C,E, F, G and H from Operon Technology Ltd. were tried on S. laevis DNA extracted by CTAB miniprep method. It was found out that the most suitable PCR condition for S. laevis is condition, which require more PCR cycles, compunded with higher MgCl2, concentration, employed more DNA sample and primer. Further survey using two primers on 110 individuals from natural habitat showed that S.laevis has considerable amount of genetic variationArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter416PEAnnales Bogorienses25A conceptual framework and typology for explaining the outcomes of local forest managementWollenberg, E1998community involvementforest managementlocal planninginstitutionscomparisonsmacroeconomicspoliticssocioeconomicsFew generalizations are currently possible about the effectiveness of local forest management, owing to a lack of common terms and concepts with which to compare the wide range of practices employed. This paper proposes a conceptual framework and typology based on four dimensions which affect the motivation, resources and capacities of local people to undertake it: (a) the objectives underlying local people's use of the forest; (b) the potential of the forest resource to meet these objectives; (c) the nature of local social arrangements; and (d) macro-level economic and political factorsArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter458PEJournal of World Forest Resource Management19Kenyah forest use in East Kalimantan: responses to El Nino, transmigration and HTIColfer, C. J. P.Salim, A1998climatic changeforest plantationsland use changeliving conditionsricetimbersThis paper recounts of a household survey done in Long Segar, East Kalimantan, in June 1997, covering the period from 1991-1997. This survey is a follow-up survey of land use, conducted first in 1980 (1962-1980) and again in 1991 (1981-1991). The initial purpose of the 1997 survey was to assess changes in land use since the development of industrial timber plantations near Long Segar. During the study period, there were two El Nino events. The results show fewer significant changes from previous conditions than expected. Cutting of old growth forest rice fields has dismished precipitously from previous level. Old secondary forest is now the dominant forest type used for swiddens. Yields have fallen from an average of 1.2 tons/ha to one ton/ha. Individual field size has increased while households had four consecutive studies. Recourse to wage labour has increased considerably, in response to agricultural failures. Standard of living appears not to have fallen disastrously. Ownership of chainshaws and outboard motors has increased. Women's traditionally dominant role in rice production seems to be holding its own (contrary to previous predictions), with slightly more agriculturally active a men per household, but a greater impact of women's input on rice production. It is concluded that the Long Segar community is coping by creative use of opportunities when its rice crops fails. But further studies to assess the possibility that the dramatic reduction in natural forest cover precipitated by other parties in the area (transmigration, logging, industrial timber plantation) may be having an impact on Long Segar's micro-climate, with potentially long term and disastrous effects. This year is predicted to be the 'Mother of all El Nino's".ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter476PEManusia dan Lingkungan515Acceptance of Queen&rsquo;s AwardVanclay, J.K1997ArticlesenCIFOR Head Quarter279PECommonwealth Forestry Review376