Incidences des mutations socio-economiques sur les activites economiques traditionnalles et sur l'ecosysteme forestierOyono, P.RPresses de l'UCAC (Central Africa Catholic University Press)Yaounde, Cameroon2004Chapterfr2-911380-88-6CIFOR Head Quarter2000P.Bigombe Logo (ed.) Le retournement de l'Etat forestier: l'endroit et l'envers des processus de gestion forestière au CamerounTHLes usages culturels de la foret au CamerounOyono, P.RPresses de l'UCAC (Central Africa Catholic University Press)Yaounde, Cameroon2004Chapterfr2-911380-88-6CIFOR Head Quarter1974P.Bigombe Logo (ed.) Le retournement de l'Etat forestier: l'endroit et l'envers des processus de gestion forestière au CamerounCMDealing with scaleCapistrano, D.Lebel, L.Lee, M.J.Petschel-Held, G.Samper, C.Scholes, R.Wilbanks, T.J.Biggs, RIsland PressWashington, D.C., USA2003ecosystemsassessmentCIFOR PublicationenCIFOR Head Quarter1867Alcamo, J. [et al.] Ecosystems and human well-being: a framework for assessmentCMThe compatibility of properly managed productions forests with wildlife conservation in BorneoMeijaard, EUniversiti Malaysia, Sabah. Institute for Tropical Biology and ConservationSabah, Malaysia2004forest managementbiodiversitywildlife conservationspecies diversitylogging effectsresearchconferencesThis paper summarizes the detailed analysis of the relationship between ecological and life history characteristics of a selected number of Bornean vertebrates and their sensitivity to timber harvest and associated impacts. The data suggest that few species are negatively affected by the simple removal of commercial timber species. Associated impacts, however, such as increased hunting pressure in opened-up forest areas, increased erosion and soil compaction, slashing of lianas and ground cover vegetation, and fragmentation of once larger forest areas, can significantly reduce survival chances of wildlife populations in logged forests. Many of these negative impacts can be reduced by management interventions that do not necessarily reduce timber output from a forestry concession. Based on these findings, the authors provide recommendations for forestry managemnet that, if properly implemented, would increase the compatibility between logging and wildlife conservation.Chapteren983-41084-3-5CIFOR Head Quarter1771Mohamed, M., Kusano, T., Jensen, S.M. (eds.) Biodiversity conservation: forward together: proceedings of the Bornean Biodiversity & Ecosystems Conservation Programme in Sabah (BBEC) International Conference 2004, held on 24th-26th February 2004 at Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, MalaysiaIDValuation of indigenous forests and woodlandsChipeta, M.E.Kowero, G.SUniversity of Kwazulu-NatalScottsville, South Africa2004woodlandsvaluationeconomic analysisnatural resourcesChapteren1869140508CIFOR Head Quarter1759Lawes, M.J., Eeley, H.A.C., Shackleton, C.M., Geach, B.G.S., (eds.). Indigenous forests and woodlands in South Africa: policy, people and practiceZWMultidimensional measurements of approaches to forest sustainability assessments: an overview of models, approaches, and issuesMendoza, G.A.Prabhu, RKluwer Academic PublishersDordrecht, Netherlands2002cognitive developmentsustainabilitycriteriamodelsThis article provides an overview of concepts, models, measures, and dimensions of forest sustainability assessments. The methods described include models that are fully developed and have actually been applied to various application contexts, as well as two normative models, graph theory and cognitive mapping, that appear to have potential for more in-depth analysis of the interactions of sustainability indicators. The former is based on the principles of multi-criteria analysis (MCA), an approach that is capable of accommodating the amount of complexity and uncertainty inherent in the concept and practice of forest sustainability. The other methods make use of “softer” analysis that are suited particularly for the assessment and measurement of qualitative indicators of sustainability. The MCA models are capable of determining relative importance of indicators and estimating sustainability index values cased on the combined impacts of indicators. Measures of relative importance can be used to prioritise indicators or filter out those that are relatively unimportant. ‘Softer’ analysis methods such as cognitive mapping and graph theory can help examine the interactions between and among indicators and help identify critical domains, critical paths, and tactically and strategically important indicators, based on the strength of their connectivity with other indicators, either directly or indirectly. These measures of connectivity can provide useful insights that can help managers identify indicators in need of attention, monitoring or even mitigation when necessary. Concepts such as the use of sustainability thresholds and qualitative flags also discussed.Chapteren1402010974CIFOR Head Quarter1753Pukkala, T. (ed.) Multi-objective forest planningZWBosques: contribucion limitada para el desarrollo rural?Wunder, SCIFORBelem, Brazil2004rural developmentrural developmentdeforestationChapteres979-3361-40-9CIFOR Head Quarter1702Pokorny, B., Sabogal, C., Kramer, F., (eds.) Forum sobre bosques, gestion y desarollo: opciones para la AmazoniaBRBosques tropicales y poblaciones rurales: promoviendo un nuevo paradigma en la region amazonicaShanley, P.Garcia-Fernandez, CCIFORBelem, Brazil2004rural developmentrural communitiesforest exploitationnon-timber forest productsChapteres979-3361-40-9CIFOR Head Quarter1703Pokorny, B., Sabogal, C., Kramer, F.(eds.) Forum sobre bosques, gestion y desarollo: opciones para la AmazoniaBRBlanco y negro o bien colorido: discrepancias en la percepcion de los bosques for investigadores y agricultores familliaresHurtienne, T.Pacheco, PCIFORBelem, Brazil2004Chapteres979-3361-40-9CIFOR Head Quarter1704Pokorny, B., Sabogal, C., Kramer, F.(eds.) Forum sobre bosques, gestion y desarollo: opciones para la AmazoniaBRForesteria comunitaria en Bolivia: abriendo horizontes para nuevos actoresCronkleton, P.Albornoz, M.ACIFORBelem, Brazil2004community forestrycommunity involvementChapteres979-3361-40-9CIFOR Head Quarter1705Pokorny, B., Sabogal, C., Kramer, F.(eds.) Forum sobre bosques, gestion y desarollo: opciones para la AmazoniaBODescentralizacion y gestion forestal: la experiencia en America LatinaPacheco, PCIFORBelem, Brazil2004decentralizationforest managementhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-42S.pdfChapteres979-3361-40-9CIFOR Head Quarter1706Pokorny, B., Sabogal, C., Kramer, F.(eds.) Forum sobre bosques, gestion y desarollo: opciones para la AmazoniaBOFlorestas: Contribuicao limitada ao desenvolvimento rural?Wunder, SCIFORBelem, Brazil2004local communityrural developmentdeforestationChapterpt979-3361-37-9CIFOR Head Quarter1707Pokorny, B., Sabogal, C., Kramer, F.,(eds.) Forum sobre florestas, gestao e desenvolvimento: opcoes para a AmazoniaBRFlorestas tropicais e populacoes rurais: promovendo um novo paradigma na regiao AmazonicaShanley, P.Garcia-Fernandez, CCIFORBelem, Brazil2004rural communitiesrural developmentforest exploitationnon-timber forest productsChapterpt979-3361-37-9CIFOR Head Quarter1708Pokorny, B., Sabogal, C., Kramer, F.,(eds.) Forum sobre florestas, gestao e desenvolvimento: opcoes para a AmazoniaBRPreto e branco ou bem colorido: discrepancias da percepcao sobre florestas entre pesquisadores e agricultores familiaresHurtienne, T.Pacheco, PCIFORBelem, Brazil2004Chapterpt979-3361-37-9CIFOR Head Quarter1709Pokorny, B., Sabogal, C., Kramer, F.,(eds.) Forum sobre florestas, gestao e desenvolvimento: opcoes para a AmazoniaBRAtividade florestal comunitarian na Bolivia: abrindo horizontes para novos atoresCronkleton, P.Albornoz, M.ACIFORBelem, Brazil2004community forestryChapterpt979-3361-37-9CIFOR Head Quarter1710Pokorny, B., Sabogal, C., Kramer, F.,(eds.) Forum sobre florestas, gestao e desenvolvimento: opcoes para a AmazoniaBODescentralizacao e gestao forestal: a experiencia na America LatinaPacheco, PCIFORBelem, Brazil2004decentralizationforest managementChapterpt979-3361-37-9CIFOR Head Quarter1711Pokorny, B., Sabogal, C., Kramer, F.,(eds.) Forum sobre florestas, gestao e desenvolvimento: opcoes para a AmazoniaBOWater resources management policy responses to land cover change in South East Asian river basinsMurdiyarso, DCambridge University PressCambridge, UK2004water managementland use changewatershed managementland use planningpolicyThis chapter reviews several cases at the river basin scale where biophysical and socio-economic aspects are assessed and public policy-making processes are involved, with special reference to South East Asia. Examples from regional, national and local scales demonstrate the importance of a proper planning phase and at the same time conflict resolution during the implementation phase. It is emphasized that policy responses regarding land use options are needed at all scales and phases of management.Chapteren0-521-82953-4CIFOR Head Quarter1699M. Bonell and L.A. Bruijnzeel (eds.). Forests, water and people in the humid tropics: past, present, and future hydrological research for integrated land and water managementBOImpact on incentives on the development of forest plantation resources in Indonesia, with emphasis on industrial timber plantations in outer islandsGuizol, P.Aruan, A.L.PFAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificBangkok, Thailand2004forest plantationsdevelopment programmesforest policyincentivescommunity involvementeconomic analysisChapteren974-7946-60-2CIFOR Head Quarter1672Enters, T.; Durst, P.(eds.) What does it take? The role of incentives in forest plantation development in the Asia-Pacific regionIDThe contribution of carbon13 isotopic tracing of soil organic matter to the reconstitution of forest--savannah successions in the coastal zone of GabonNasi, R.Schwartz, DUNESCO and CIRADMontpellier Cedex, France2004successionforestssavannasmonitoringsoil organic matterChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1650Babin, D. (ed.) Beyond tropical deforestation: from tropical deforestation to forest cover dynamics and forest developmentGAForest dynamics: the case of Burundi: images, views, farmer innovations and forestry policiesGuizol, P.Ndikumagenge, CUNESCO and CIRADMontpellier Cedex, France2004forest treestreesindigenous knowledgefarmersforest policyafforestationforest resourcesresource utilizationfuelwoodChapteren2-87614-577-4CIFOR Head Quarter1651Babin, D.(ed.) Beyond tropical deforestation: from tropical deforestation to forest cover dynamics and forest developmentBIForest cover and agricultural technologyKaimowitz, D.Angelsen, AUNESCO and CIRADMontpellier Cedex, France2004deforestationagricultural productionfarmerstechnologyland usesupply balanceimpactChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1653Babin, D.(ed.) Beyond tropical deforestation: from tropical deforestation to forest cover dynamics and forest developmentBIDeforestation for pastures in Central America: the last fifteen yearsKaimowitz, DILRIAddis Ababa, Ethiopia2004deforestationpasturesChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1639S.K. Ehui, J. Lynam, and I. Okike (eds.) Adapting social science to the changing focus of international agricultural research: proceedings of a Rockefeller Foundation – ILCA Social Science Research Fellows workshop held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 14-18 November, 1994BIAssessing biodiversity in LULUCF-CDM projects: towards synergizing UNFCCC and CBDMurdiyarso, DOrganizing Comittee of the International Symposium/Workshop on the Kyoto Mechanism and the Conservation of Tropical Forest EcosystemTokyo, Japan2004criteriaindicatorsprojectsclean development mechanismtransaction costsmonitoringclimatic changebiodiversityCIFORThe ultimate goal of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is to stabilize the concentrations of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. From a sustainable development point of view the implementation of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in forestry sector, under the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, has been viewed as reducing the opportunity to promote clean energy technology. It is also considered to promote clearing of the existing natural forests while introducing large-scale mono-species plantations which will threaten the biodiversity conservation. Hence, it may conflict with the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Synergizing the UNFCCC and the CBD require linking their provisions on sustainable forestry, adaptation measures, monitoring and environmental impact assessment. These steps would eventually lead to joint efforts between the two conventions to (1) analyze the impacts of climate change on biological diversity and (2) integrate biodiversity consideration in the implementation of land-use and land-use change (LULUCF) activities under CDM to mitigate climate change or adaptation measures. It is extremely important that the reporting systems under the two conventions facilitate such effort prior to the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. Subsidiary bodies of the conventions should be able to provide technical advices to the Conference of Parties, especially that serves as meeting of the Parties to the UNFCCC. The instruments and tools to address and resolve the conflicts under both conventions have to be developed and applied in the implementation of LULUCF CDM projects. There are several on-going international processes on criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. These are implemented at various level and forest types through multilateral processes. Single and multiple criteria and numerous indicators ranging from seven to 65 have been adopted with main challenges in accommodating local concerns in multilateral processes. The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) developed a generic template of criteria and indicators (C&I) which can be used to assess the sustainability of forest management. Maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem function in management units are among the criteria used with seven and five indicators respectively. In addition, maintenance of genetic variation is also introduced as criteria with four indicators. CIFOR's C& I was tested at various management units across tropical ecosystem sites to determine their suitability. This experience can potentially be useful in LULUCF-CDM projects.Chapteren4-990-1797-3-0CIFOR Head Quarter1638Okuda, T. and Matsumoto, Y.(eds.) Kyoto mechanism and the conservation of tropical forest ecosystem: proceedings of the International Symposium/Workshop on the Kyoto Mechanism and the Conservation of Tropical Forest Ecosystem, 29-30 January, 2004, Waseda University, Tokyo, JapanBIForests in the pressure of global policy makingKaimowitz, DJoensuu, FinlandEuropean Forest Institute2004forest policyconferencesChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1621Baines, C.(ed.) Forest research crossing bordersBIMaking markets work for forest communitiesScherr, S.J.White, A.Kaimowitz, DColumbia University PressNew York, USA2004forest economicsmarketseconomic policyrural communitieslow income groupsprivate sectorpartnershipsforest policyChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1622Daniel J. Zarin, Janaki R., R. Alavalapati, Frances E. Putz and Marian (eds.) Working forests in the Neotropics conservation through sustainable management?BIConventional wisdom about sustainable forest management and a pro-poor forest agendaKaimowitz, DColumbia University PressNew York, USA2004forest policydevelopment plansChapteren0-231-12907-6CIFOR Head Quarter1623Daniel J. Zarin, Janaki R. R. Alavalapati, Frances E. Putz, and Marian (eds.) Working forests in the Neotropics conservation through sustainable management?BIPlantation activities and ecosystem conservation: criteria and indicators for biodiversity conservationToma, TOrganizing Comittee of the International Symposium/Workshop on the Kyoto Mechanism and the Conservation of Tropical Forest EcosystemTokyo, Japan2004biodiversitycriteriaindicatorscode of practiceforest plantationsconservationconferencesThe paper is based on CIFOR's research achievements contained in the following two publications, "Fast wood forestry: myths and realities" by Cossalter and Pye-Smith and "Linking C&I to a code of practice for industrial tropical tree plantations" by Poulsen, Applegate and Raymond. One should consider all aspects of plantation when trying to measure their impacts on biodiversity. The two above-mentioned publications contain key information in this respect. "Fast Wood Forestry; Myth and Realities" discusses the main points of controverse related to forest plantations and sort out fact from fiction, truth from misinformation. The discussion on the links between fast wood plantations and biodiversity is summarized as follows: Plantation activities could do much to conserve biodiversity if they abided by a set of guiding principles. Impacts of plantation on biodiversity will be a function of what they replace. If a large swathe of natural forest is cleared to make way for a plantation, there will be a loss of biodiversity. The same applies when a natural savanna ecosystem is replaced by a plantation of alien species. Yet a similar plantation, established on degraded land, might bring about an increase in biodiversity. Other factors of importance include the location of the plantation, its size, length of rotation and species composition. The issue of contiguity is also important. If new plantations are sited close to existing natural forests, they may benefit from their biodiversity: animals, birds and insects will be readily available to invade the new plantations. However, if no such reservoir of biodiversity exists, then the chance of the plantations being invaded by wildlife from outside, and providing a new habitat, becomes more remote. It is worth bearing in mind that generalizations about the impact of plantations on the biodiversity, are often misleading. The problems related to plantations are often site-specific, and the way in which they are planned and managed is of paramount importance."Linking C&I to a Code of Practice for Industrial Tropical Tree Plantations" is a useful tool to improve plantation planning and managing. CIFOR's Criteria and Indicators (C&I) for Sustainable Development of Industrial Tropical Tree Plantations provides the benchmark for a plantation owner to assess progress towards sustainable forest management within their forest estate. The Code provides details on principles and minimum standards relating to improved plantation development and establishment. The CIFOR C&I and Code for Industrial Tropical Tree Plantations in relation to biodiversity conservation are formulated as follows: 1) Criteria: impact on structure and ecosystem function is minimized; 2) Indicators: exclusion and conservation zones are developed according to best practice; habitat trees are retained in plantation production areas where appropriate for wildlife; endangered flora and fauna on international (CITES) and country lists are protected; endangered endangered flora and fauna on local and regional lists are protected; 3)Code of practice: a) setting aside natural forest reserves within production areas large enough to maintain viable population of plants and animals particularly where rare and endangered; retaining areas of unlogged forest to maintain habitat diversity. b) These areas should connect patches of forest as corridors which will not be logged. c) retaining habitat trees in production areas where appropriate for wildlife; d) representation of forest types to be adequate reserved in conservation forests.Chapteren4-990-1797-3-0CIFOR Head Quarter1607Okuda, T. and Matsumoto, Y.(eds.) Kyoto mechanism and the conservation of tropical forest ecosystem: proceedings of the International Symposium/Workshop on the Kyoto Mechanism and the Conservation of Tropical Forest Ecosystem, 29-30 January, 2004, Waseda University, Tokyo, JapanBIA general allometric equation for estimating biomass in Acacia mangium plantationsHiratsuka, M.Toma, T.Yamada, M.Heriansyah, I.Morikawa, YUniversity of the Philippines Los Banos. College of Forestry and Natural ResourcesManila, Philippines2004Acacia mangiumplantationsclean development mechanismKyoto ProtocolbiomasscarbonmeasurementafforestationconferencesAcacia Mangium Willd. is one of the most important tree species grown in commercial plantation in Monsoon Asia. Recently, the need for accurate information in the biomass in plantations has become more urgent, especially since the amount of carbon sequestered in afforestation/reforestation Clean Development Mechanism (AR-CDM) projects in developing countries can be included under the Kyoto Protocol. We present here a general allometric equation for estimating aboveground biomass (AGB) of A. mangium plantations from the diameter of the trees recorded at the respectives sites. Destructive samplings were conducted in Papua New Guinea, Vietnam, and Indonesia. At each site, 4-12 trees were felled, their trunks, branches and leaves were separately weighed, and allometric models for estimating AGB was determined. A general allometric equation (A log-log model) was developed from an overall total of 26 sample trees from sampled sites. No significant differences were found between the biomass estimations derived from the site-specific and the general allometric equations. The general allometric equation may allow us to estimate AGB of A. mangium plantations in Monsoon Asia without destructive sampling.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1594University of the Philippines Los Banos. College of Forestry and Natural Resources Proceedings of the 2003 International Conference on Tropical Forests and Climate Change: Carbon Sequestration and Clean Development Mechanism: held on 21-22 October, 2003, Traders Hotel, Manila, PhilippinesIDTropical peatlands management and climate change: a case study in Sumatra, IndonesiaMurdiyarso, D.Suryadiputra, I.N.WahyuntoInternational Peat SocietyJyvaskyla, Finland2004deforestationcarbonemissionpeatlandsclimatic changewater managementconferencesTropical peatland is an important terrestrial carbon pool and habitat of endemic species that requires sustainable management for the benefit of local livelihoods and global climate. The size of carbon stocks and accumulation are staggering but there is no clear and easy access to markets for tropical peatland conservation. Meanwhile the benefits of environmental services are largerly enjoyed by national wealthier and global beneficieries. This paper demonstrates the loss of carbon at various sites as part of development opportunity at various peatland environments and social structure. Peatland development in the tropics including Indonesia is driven by the increasing need for land, food, and fiber under the pressure of population growth. In Sumatra, where peatland covered an area of 7.2 Mha in 1990 was estimated that it has reduced to 6.5 Mha in the recent survey in 2002. The common practice in peatland development is deforestation followed by extensive drainage before settlement and agricultural development taking place. Under such conditions it is estimated that Sumatran peatlands have released 3.47 Gt C contributing to global climate change, in addition to the emerging local environmental problems, such as flooding and drought leading to soil acidity and fires.Chapteren952-99401-0-6CIFOR Head Quarter1583Juhani Paivanen (ed.) Proceedings of the 12th International Peat Congress on Wise Use of Peatlands, 6-11 June 2004, Tampere, Finland: vol.1 - oral presentationsIDFood, forests, and fields in a Bornean rain forest: toward appropriate agroforestry developmentColfer, C. J. P.Soedjito, HOxford University PressNew York, USA2003foodslocal peopleagroforestry2nd ed.Chapteren983-56-0067-8CIFOR Head Quarter1572Padoch, C. and Peluso, N.L.(eds.) Borneo in transition: people, forest, conservation, and developmentIDPengelolaan api, perubahan sumberdaya alam dan pengaruhnya terhadap kehidupan masyarakat di areal rawa/gambut-Sumatera bagian selatanChokkalingam, U.Suyanto, S.Permana, R.P.Kurniawan, I.Mannes, J.Darmawan, A.Khususiyah, N.Susanto, R.SCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004forest fireswetlandsfire effectspeatlandschangeconferenceshttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/CChokkalingam0301I0.pdfChapterid979-3361-49-2CIFOR Head Quarter1569Suyanto, S., Chokkalingam, U., Wibowo, P. (eds.) Kebakaran di lahan rawa/gambut di Sumatera: masalah dan solusi: prosiding semiloka, Palembang, Sumatera Selatan, 10 - 11 Desember 2003IDSummary of workshop results: kebakaran di lahan rawa/gambut di Sumatera: masalah dan solusi: prosiding semiloka, Palembang, Sumatera Selatan, 10 - 11 Desember 2003Chokkalingam, U.Suyanto, SCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004peatlandsforest firescausesenvironmental impactcommunity involvementdeforestationplantation cropsfire effectssettlementwetlandsconferenceshttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/CChokkalingam0302E0.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/CChokkalingam0302I0.pdfChapteren979-3361-49-2CIFOR Head Quarter1610Suyanto, S., Chokkalingam, U., Wibowo, P. (eds.) Kebakaran di lahan rawa/gambut di Sumatera: masalah dan solusi: prosiding semiloka, Palembang, Sumatera Selatan, 10 - 11 Desember 2003IDRingkasan hasil semiloka: kebakaran di lahan rawa/gambut di Sumatera: masalah dan solusi: prosiding semiloka, Palembang, Sumatera Selatan, 10 - 11 Desember 2003Chokkalingam, U.Suyanto, SCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004peatlandsforest firescausesenvironmental impactcommunity involvementdeforestationplantation cropsfire effectssettlementwetlandsconferenceshttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/CChokkalingam0302I0.pdfhttp://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/CChokkalingam0302E0.pdfChapteren979-3361-49-2CIFOR Head Quarter1611Suyanto, S., Chokkalingam, U., Wibowo, P. (eds.) Kebakaran di lahan rawa/gambut di Sumatera: masalah dan solusi: prosiding semiloka, Palembang, Sumatera Selatan, 10 - 11 Desember 2003IDUseful myths and intractable truths: the politics of the links between forests and water in Central AmericaKaimowitz, DCambridge University PressCambridge, UK2004forestscatchment hydrologywatershed managementwater resourcespolicydeforestationhurricaneprojectsThis chapter examines the policy debate related to the links between forests and water in Central America and the approaches that policymakers and others have used to address the perceived problems, with emphasis on the siltation of large reservoirs. It shows how political, institutional, and technical factors have interacted to produce positive but sub-optimal results and offers suggestions for future initiatives. While the focus is on Central America, many of the arguments presented apply to other tropical regions. The next section provides a brief history of the debates surrounding catchment issues in Central America, followed by a summary of recent scientific literature on the physical and economic links between forests, climate, and water and sediment flows. Case histories of the El Cajon hydroelectric dam in Honduras, the Lempa River basin in El Salvador, the Panama Canal, and Hurricane Mitch, are then presented. These cases have many dimensions but this paper concentrates exclusively on the aspects related to off-farm hydrological effects; there is no attempt to evaluate the projects involved, which may well be justified on the grounds. In addition, the main focus is on forest cover.Chapteren0-521-82953-4CIFOR Head Quarter1562M. Bonell and L.A. Bruijnzeel (eds.) Forests, water and people in the humid tropics: past, present, and future hydrological research for integrated land and water managementIDCultivating communities of practice: the CGIAR information management professionals' experienceRamos, M.M.Soeripto, S.W.Ali, M.KBandar Seri Begawan, Brunei2003CGIARinformation servicesnetworkingconferencesA community of practice (CoP) is defined as a group who share a common concern or a commitment towards a goal, and find solutions to common problems. Successful collaboration through CoPs is well documented in current literature. Presently, information providers face bigger challenges in servicing the requirements of end-users and stakeholders. Information and communication technologies (ICT) altered the format, quantity, and quality of information, access points, and the way libraries support organizations. Moreover, agricultural research has become multidisciplinary, embracing the fields of biophysics and the social sciences, so that no single library can provide information as expected by scientists. This paper traces teh development of the CoP of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) information managemnet professionals (IMPs) and discusses the issues, challenges, constraints, activities and future plans.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1558Information resources empowerment: enhancing knowlege heritage, volume 1: proceedings of 12th Congress of Southeast Asian Librarians (CONSAL XII), held in Bandar Seri Begawan, 20-23 October 2003IDIs agroforestry likely to reduce deforestation?Angelsen, A.Kaimowitz, DIsland PressWashington, DC2004agroforestrydeforestationreviewsIs agroforestry likely to reduce deforestation? Most agroforesters for the past 15 years have said "yes", some adding "by about 5 ha of reduced deforestation per ha of agroforestry adopted". The authors argue, nevertheless, that in many cases the answer is likely to be either "it depends" or even "no". The aim with this chapter is to discuss key factors which condition the agroforestry - deforestation link. That is, what makes a "yes" more likely than a "no"?. The reformulated question therefore is: which types of agroforestry under what conditions are likely to reduce the conversion of natural forest?. This chapter provides a systematic review of arguments for and against agroforestry as a means to reduce deforestation.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1534Schroth, G., Fonseca, G.A.B., Harvey, C.A., Gascon, C., Vasconcelos, H.L., Izac, A.M.N. (eds) Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation in tropical landscapesIDThe biodiversity and conservation potential of shifting cultivation landscapesFinegan, B.Nasi, RIsland PressWashington, DC2004biodiversityconservationshifting cultivationChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1535Schroth, G., Fonseca, G.A.B., Harvey, C.A., Gascon, C., Vasconcelos, H.L., Izac, A.M.N. (eds) Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation in tropical landscapesIDBiomass and potential nutrient removal by harvesting in short-rotation plantationsYamada, M.Toma, T.Hiratsuka, M.Morikawa, YCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004biomasscyclingplant residuesfertilizersforest plantationsEucalyptusAcaciashigh yielding varietiesindustryconferencesData on standing biomass, mean annual increment of carbon stock, and nutrient accumulation in 40 industrial plantations at 21 sites in 11 countries are summarised. Aboveground biomass and mean annual increment of carbon near the harvest age, of these plantations ranged from 44 to 324 t ha-1 and from 3.1 to 22.9 tC ha-1 yr-1, respectively. Plantations managed on a short rotation are expected to accumulate carbon rapidly. However, there are large variations of biomass accumulation depending on site conditions. There is concern about the potential decrease of productivity caused by nutrient loss by intensive and repeated harvesting. It is important to determine the nutrients removed and conserve them as much as possible to prevent productivity loss and for sustainable management of industrial plantations. Careful management of the nutrient cycle through residue retention and fertiliser application is necessary to maintain high productivity.Chapteren979-3361-41-7CIFOR Head Quarter1524Nambiar, E.K.S., Ranger, J., Tiarks, A., Toma, T.(eds.) Site management and productivity in tropical plantation forests: proceedings of workshops in Congo July 2001 and China February 2003IDSummary of progressTiark, A.Nambiar, E.K.S.Ranger, J.Toma, TCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004conferencesforest plantationsresearch projectsnetworkingrotationssilvicultural systemsEucalyptusAcaciastropicsChapteren979-3361-41-7CIFOR Head Quarter1526Nambiar, E.K.S., Ranger, J., Tiarks, A., Toma, T. (eds.) Site management and productivity in tropical plantation forests: proceedings of workshops in Congo July 2001 and China February 2003IDEl nuevo regimen forestal en el norte amazonico bolivianode Jong, W.Becker, M.Ruiz, S.Gottwald, CCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BDeJong0401S0.pdfChapteres979-3361-45-XCIFOR Head Quarter1522Wil de Jong (ed.) Retos y perspectivas del nuevo regimen forestal en el norte amazonico bolivianoBOIgnames sauvages des ecotones foret-savane et foret-culture du sud-est du CameroonDounias, E.Hladik, A.Hladik, CParis, France2003Chapterfr2709915340CIFOR Head Quarter1514Froment, A., Guffroy, J.(eds.) Peuplements anciens et actuels des forets tropicalesBOTimber harvesting, non timber forest products and rural livelihoods in Central AfricaNdoye, OIUCNYaounde, Cameroon2003non-timber forest productstreesmedicinal plantsresearchtimbersspeciesconferencesMany trees are important to local communities for health, income, nutrition, and construction purposes, and to timber companies for their wood. Timber production and exports have increased in Central Africa over the last decade. Furthermore, the number of species exploited for timber purposes have also increased since the devaluation of the CFA Francs. All these factors have negative impact on forest resources and on biodiversity. Trees harvested for their timber take many years to mature. The destruction of these resources is a threat to rural livelihood. The paper argues that a balanced approach is needed to take into account both the interests of rural communities and timber companies. This will require, among others, the respect by timber companies of the management plans they draw, the exclusion from harvesting of selected timber species that are important to local communities, and the need to involve rural communities in the monitoring of the activities of timber companies.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1518Conference sur les Ecosystems de Forets Denses et Humides d'Afrique Centrale (CEFDHAC). Concilier la gestion des ecosystemes forestiers d'Afrique centrale et la lutte contre la pauvrete: actes de la quatrieme CEFDHAC, Kinshasa, 10-13 Juin 2002BOProductos forestales, medios de subsistencia y conservacion: estudios de caso sobre sistemas de manejo de productos forestales no maderables: introductionAlexiades, M.N.Shanley, PCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004non-timber forest productssustainabilityforest conservationChapteresCIFOR Head Quarter1504Alexiades, M.N. and Shanley, P. (eds.) Productos forestales, medios de subsistencia y conservacion: estudios de caso sobre sistemas de manejo de productos forestales no maderables. vol. 3 - America LatinaBOCamu-camu [Myrciaria dubia McVaugh (H.B.K)] un arbusto amazonico de areas inundables con alto contenido de vitamina C en Loreto, PeruPanduro, M.P.de Jong, WCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004non-timber forest productsMyrciariavitaminshealthfoodsChapteresCIFOR Head Quarter1505Alexiades, M.N. and Shanley, P. (eds.) Productos forestales, medios de subsistencia y conservacion: estudios de caso sobre sistemas de manejo de productos forestales no maderables. vol. 3 - America LatinaPEUna de gato [Uncaria tomentosa (Willd. Ex Roem. & Schult) DC. y Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) Gmel.]: potencial y esperanzas de un bejuco Amazonico del PeruArmas, W.N.de Jong, WCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004non-timber forest productsUncariaChapteresCIFOR Head Quarter1506Alexiades, M.N. and Shanley, P. (eds.) Productos forestales, medios de subsistencia y conservacion: estudios de caso sobre sistemas de manejo de productos forestales no maderables. vol. 3 - America LatinaPE'Amate' papel de corteza Mexicano [Trema micrantha (L.) Blume]: nuevas estrategias de extraccion para enfrentar las demandas de mercadoLopez, CCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004non-timber forest productsbarkdemandmarketsextractionTrema micrantaagroforestryAmate is an indigenous hand made paper manufactured in Mexico since pre-Hispanic times and distributed as handicraft since the end of the 1960s. Otomi artisans living in the mountainous region of the Sierra Norte of the State of Puebla manufacture it while numerous traders commercialize it at national and international level. Right from early days of commercialization, there has been a persistent market demand that have implied distinct changes, like constant diversification of paper product types and of trading options, involvement of new and more social actors occupied in bark harvest, paper manufacture, paper decoration, or paper trading, and the constant adaptation to new forms of work organization. As the market demand rises there are increasing pressures on tree resources to augment the bark supply. Three main processes have occurred in the Sierra Norte de Puebla region, in order to satisfy the demand for bark raw material: a) incorporation of an increasing number of harvesters b) constant search for, and adoption of, new tree species to supply bark c) the gradual spatial expansion of the harvest area. The survival of this indigenous industry, previously expected to disappear because of the scarcity of raw material, is now based on a new tree resource use strategy that consists of the exploitation of Trema micrantha trees, attaining ecologic benefits, and growing as shade trees in coffee plantations, the third most important land use of the Sierra Norte de Puebla region. ChapteresCIFOR Head Quarter1507Alexiades, M.N. and Shanley, P. (eds.) Productos forestales, medios de subsistencia y conservacion: estudios de caso sobre sistemas de manejo de productos forestales no maderables. vol. 3 - America LatinaMXResearch to integrate productivity enhancement, environmental protection, and human developmentSayer, J.A.Campbell, B.MCABI Publishing in association with Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Wallingford, Oxon, UK2003adaptationcapacitydecision makingimpactassessmentintegrated systemsmodelsUpdated from Conservation Ecology. Online Journal. 5 (2) :[online] html URL: http://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss2/art32To meet the challenges of poverty and environmental sustainability, a different kind of research will be needed. This research will need to embrace the complexity of these systems by redirecting the objectives of research toward enhancing adaptive capacity, by incorporating more participatory approaches, by embracing key principles such as multi-scale analysis and intervention, and by the use of a variety of tools (e.g., systems analysis, information management tools, and impact assessment tools). Integration will be the key concept in the new approach; integration across scales, components, stakeholders, and disciplines. Integrated approaches, as described in this book, will require changes in the culture and organization of research.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1499Campbell, B.M., Sayer, J.A. (eds.) Integrated natural resource management: linking productivity, the environment and development.MXPolicy options for stabilising the forest frontier: a global perspectiveWunder, SSpringer-VerlagBerlin2004tropical forestsland use changepolicyforest policydeforestationChapteren3-540-00603-6CIFOR Head Quarter1493Gerold, G., Fremerey, M, Guhardja, E. (eds.) Land use, nature conservation and the stability of rainforest margins in Southeast AsiaMXInitiatives endogenes d'intensification et de diversification a l'interieur des agroforets-cacao au Sud-Cameroun: lecons pour une foresterie participative dans les systemes a base de cultures perennes en Afrique centrale et de l'OuestSonwa, D.J.Weise, S.F.Ndoye, O.Janssens, M.J.JFAORome, Italy2003agroforestry systemscocoaforest plantationsparticipationcommunity involvementsocioeconomicsconferencesSummary in EnglishForest cover has deteriorated less in Central Africa than in West Africa. The cocoa cultivation practised in West Africa, after felling of the forest, has contributed to the destruction of that cover. Unlike West Africa, cocoa cultivation in Southern Cameroon (Centaral Africa) is done by smallholders' conversion of the natural forest. This practice today constitutes a factor on which the cocoa farmers rely to counter the fall in the price of cocoa and fluctuations on the international market. In such agroforests, farmer thus manage timber wood, fuelwood, non-wood forest products, etc. by intensification and diversification. By doing so in the cocoa plantations, they attain, within the same ecosystem, the production and conservation objectives. These smallholders forestry practices in the cocoa agroforests are complementary to community forestry recently introduced in Cameroon. The fall in the price and the liberalization of the cocoa line has exposed the economic fragility of the cocoa monoculture systems currently practiced in West Africa. Such lack of economic strength coexist with an economic precariousness shown by low biological diversity, low carbon retention and the emergence of pests, such as capsids. It is therefore now necessary to promote systems with several levels of application, using species that have both ecological and socio-economic functions. The cocoa agroforests of southern Cameroon thus seem to be models that may well be reproduced, with variants, in West Africa during the establishment of new cocoa plantations or the development and/or renewal of existing ones. This paper presents the state of the Central and West African forest resources and proposes recommendations in favour of participatory forestry in the perennial crop-based systems (mainly of cocoa).ChapterfrCIFOR Head Quarter1486FAO Second international workshop on Participatory Forestry in Africa: Defining the Way Forward: Sustainable Livelihoods and Sustainable Forest Management through Participatory Forestry, 18-22 February 2002, Arusha, Tanzania.MXSecondary forest definitions and dynamicsChokkalingam, U.de Jong, W.Sabogal, CFAORome, Italy2003secondary foreststerminologyconferencesChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1487Prepared by Bernd Markus Liss, Coert Geldenhuys, Dali Mwagore, Mirjam Kuzee, Unna Chokkalingam, Herman Savenije, Froylan Castaneda Proceedings of a Workshop on tropical secondary forest management in Africa: reality and perspectives, Nairobi, Kenya, 09-13 December 2002MXRattan (Calamus spp.) gardens of Kalimantan: resilience and evolution in a managed non-timber forest product systemPambudhi, F.Belcher, B.Levang, P.Dewi, SCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004canes and rattanscultivationshifting cultivationsocioeconomicsgovernment policyfire effectsplantationsnon-timber forest productsRattan cultivated as part of the traditional swidden agricultural system has been a major source of internationally traded rattan raw material and, more recently, the basis of a strong domestic furniture and handicrafts industry. The rattan gardens of Kalimantan provide an example of an intermediate non-timber forest product management system that is well adapted to the local economy and ecology. Over the past two decades, however, important changes have taken place, changes that tested the resilience of the system. Government policies designed to encourage the domestic processing industry and monopsonistic manufacturing association have sharply depressed demand and prices. New developments in the region, in the form of roads, industrial plantations, mining, and other new activities. Recent widespread forest fires have destroyed large areas of rattan gardend, effectively forcing some rattan farmers out of businnes. Under current conditions, withlow prevailing demand and prices, rattan gardens provide valuable ecological services, in term of biodiversity conservation and other forest functions. As rattan remains an important commodity in Indonesia and internationally, the rattan garden system may remain viable, at least in the medium term.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1481Koen Kuster and Brian Belcher (eds.) Forest products, livelihoods and conservation: case studies of non-timber forest product systems. volume 1 - AsiaMXCommercialisation of non-timber forest products in Africa: history, context and prospectsSunderland, T.C.H.Harrison, S.T.Ndoye, OCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004non-timber forest productscase studiestradeecologysocioeconomicsmarketsChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1483Terry Sunderland and Ousseynou Ndoye (eds.) Forest products, livelihoods and conservation: case studies on non-timber forest product systems. volume 2 - AfricaMXTrading forest products in South-Eastern Zimbabwe: ecology, economics and politics of woodcarvingStanda-Gunda, W.Braedt, OCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004non-timber forest productswood carvingincomepoliticswoodlandsdroughtstructural adjustmentpolicytradeThe commercial use of natural resources to manufacture products for sale to tourists has become a significant supplementary source of income to rural people in all areas of Zimbabwe. The use of natural resources to produce woodcarving has been controversial because of the volume of woods used and the impact on woodlands. This article explores some of the baseline data, which have been gathered under an economic study of the woodcarving industry along the Masvingo-Beitbridge road. Results of the analysis show that returns to time invested in carving are higher than from other locally available alternatives. The growth of the industry is primarily attributed to (a) the drought years, which forced people to seek alternative livelihood options; (b) the economic structural adjustment programme that devaluate the Zimbabwean dollar thereby attracting more foreign visitors while at the same time resulting in loss of jobs especially in the public sectors as subsidies were removed; (c) the collapse of apartheid in South Africa and the several years of domestic political stability in Zimbabwe, which led to a significant increase in tourist traffic between the two countries. The implications of the results are considered with respect to the sustainability of this growing sector.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1484Terry Sunderland and Ousseynou Ndoye (eds.) Forest products, livelihoods and consercation: case studies on non-timber forest product systems. volume 2 - AfricaMXNon-timber forest product commercialisation: development and conservation lessonsBelcher, B.Kusters, KCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004non-timber forest productsproductioncommercializationrural developmenthouseholdsincomesocioeconomicsenvironmental impactChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1478Koen Kuster and Brian Belcher (eds.) Forest products, livelihoods and conservation: case studies of non-timber forest product systems. volume 1 - AsiaMXBenzoin, a resin produced by Styrax trees in North Sumatra Province, IndonesiaGarcia-Fernandez, CCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004styraxcropping systemssocioeconomicstradeusesSumatran benzoin is a resin produced by Styrax trees, managed in forest gardens in the highlands of North Sumatra. The resin is used in incense, perfume and pharmaceutical preparations and as a flafouring agent. Trade with foreign countries has existed for over a millennium, first with China and later with Arab and Europe. The economic and cultural roles of benzoin have undergone major changes in the last few decades. Previously benzoin gardening was considered a high status activity which generated high incame and made farmer proud. Nowadays some villages have abandoned the practices as other more profitable cash crops have displaced benzoin as an income source. The younger generations perceives benzoin cultivation as a backward activity, preferring to work in their annual crop gardens or for wages. Nevertheless some farmers remain attached to benzoin as they recognize it as the product that gave life to their settlement and provided the means to educate generations of relatives. From a conservation point of fiew, benzoin management represents low-intensity disturbance of the ecosystem and allows the effective accumulation of a forest species while maintaining the forest environment.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1479Koen Kuster and Brian Belcher (eds.) Forest products, livelihoods and conservation: case studies of non-timber forest product systems. volume 1 - AsiaMXDamar agroforests in Sumatra, Indonesia: domestication of a forest ecosystem through domestication of dipterocarps for resin productionDe Foresta, H.Michon, G.Kusworo, A.Levang, PCIFORBogor, Indonesia2004agroforestryforest plantationsShorea javanicanon-timber forest productsresinsincomehouseholdstradeproperty rightsbiodiversityconservationFarmers in the West Lampung Pesisir area in the south of Sumatra, Indonesia, have established forest gardens by introducing damar trees in upland rice swidden plantations. These damar gardens were established as the wild resource itself was vanishing. While cultivating this forest resorce, villagers have achieved the global restoration of a forest in the middle of agricultural lands. Harvest of resin from damar trees represents the main source of household cash income. Furthermore, Pesisir farmers managed to preserve a high level of biodiversity and a whole range of economic products and functions originally derived from the forest. Institutionally, appropriation of the forest resource entailed a total reorganization of the traditional tenure system for forest lands and goes along with the increasing importance of land as property and privatisation of this property. During the 1990s, the acceleration of regional development has threatened the agroforests area, as they were not recognized by the state and had no legal status. Damar gardens, as a succesful forest management strategy developed by local communities, may represent an important support for the development of formal recognition of local people's rights over forest resources.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1480Koen Kuster and Brian Belcher (eds.) Forest products, livelihoods and conservation: case studies of non-timber forest product systems. volume 1 - AsiaMXReconciling agriculture with the conservation of tropical forestsde Jong, WMarcel and DekkerNew York, USA2004community forestryshifting cultivationtropical forestsconservationrehabilitationhome gardensagroforestry systemssecondary forestsThe expansion of agriculture is widely held to be one of the causes of tropical deforestation. Simply stated, the progressive expansion of agriculture into areas of tropical forest can only occur when forests are slashed. There is little doubt that in many places an increased need for agricultural land goes hand in hand with expansion into forestland. However, the relationship between agricultural expansion and tropical deforestation is more complex than a simple addition and subtraction formula suggests. Many forms of tropical agriculture are integrated with forestry activities. Forests play an important role in the complex of resource management among many farmers in the tropics. Although such tropical agroforestry is no alternative for strict forest conservation in protected areas, it is a viable alternative—especially from a conservation point of view—to other agricultural development schemes that are often proposed or blindly copied in many tropical countries. Chapteren0-8247-4268-0CIFOR Head Quarter1476Goodman, R. M. (ed.) Encyclopedia of plant and crop scienceMXCompany--community partnership outgrower schemes in forestry plantations in Indonesia: an alternative to conventional rehabilitation programmesNawir, A.A.Gumartini, TFAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificBangkok, Thailand2003conferencesland degradationforest plantationsrehabilitationpartnershipscommunity forestrylocal peoplecompaniesIndonesia has a considerable area of degraded land requiring rehabilitation. However, most rehabilitation projects in the past have been government driven, depending on public funding (ndonesian government and international donors), and have focused mainly on technical aspects. As a result people living in surrounding targeted areas are not adopting rehabilitation techniques. Innovative approcahes are necessary if the objectives of a rehabilitation programme are to be met while providing benefits to private companies and local people. The findings of a study of outgrower schemes in Indonesian timber plantations suggested that company--community partnerships could be an alternative for implementing rehabilitation programmes. The partnership arrangement over a 10- to 45- year period is based on a contract. It states the rights and duties of each party in establishing a forestry plantation and the benefit-sharing agreement at the time of harvest. The schemes take place on logged-over forests and idle lands, mostly Imperata grasslands. The partnership provides opportunities for forestry plantation companies to play a social role and rehabilitate degraded resources. It also provides job opportunities to local people and incomes from harvested timber at the end of each rotation under a long-term contract.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1440Sim, H.C., Appanah, S., Durst, P.B. (eds.) Bringing back the forests: policies and practices for degraded lands and forests. Proceedings of an international conference, 7-10 October 2002, Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaIDLocal forest management: conclusionEdmunds, D.Wollenberg, E.Contreras, A.P.Liu DachangKelkar, G.Nathan, D.Sarin, M.Singh, N.MEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2003forest managementgovernment policyforest policylocal populationdecentralizationcommunity forestrycommunity involvementdecision makingimpactThis chapter concludes from a study of the impacts of forest devolution policies in China, India and the Philippines that devolution has had significant impacts, but mostly on increasing forest cover. Changes in livelihoods were mixed, and control over forests was little changed. In some cases, de facto control and benefits actually decreased. Forest departments are ill-suited to leading economic development among forest users, as their interests are too divergent. Other state agencies and third party facilitators are necessary. It concludes with a set of recommendations for improving policy support to local forest management.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1427Edmunds, D., Wollenberg, E. (eds.) Local forest management: the impacts of devolution policiesCNTowards mutually beneficial partnership in outgrower schemes: lessons learned from IndonesiaNawir, A.A.Santoso, L.Mudhofar, IFAORome, Italy2003forest plantationspartnershipssocial impacteconomic impactconferencesOutgrower scheme initiatives in Indonesia have occured particularly in response to rapid changes in the sociopolitical situation in Indonesia. This situation has influenced forestry platnation industries to practice more socially oriented management in daily operations, and also in the same time as a way to secure company wood supplies. Despite the emerging private initiatives on outgrower schemes, companies do not generally have clear idea on the mechanisms that would work best in the field and to what extent participatory approaches could be used in ensuring a full commitment from landowner/tree grower partners whithout jeopardizing the companies' economic pronciple of cost efficiency. This study intends to provide comprehensive understanding to the private timber plantation companies, or to those implementing outgrower schemes, or to those who wish to initiate feasible outgrower schemes by considering the expectations from small-scale tree grower partners.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1432Nawir, A.A., Anyonge, C.H., Race, D., Vermeulen, S.(eds.) Towards equitable partnerships between corporate and smallholder partners: relating partnerships to social, economic and environmental indicatorsIDResilience and evolution in a managed NTFP system: evidence from the rattan gardens of KalimantanBelcher, B.Levang, P.Dewi, S.Achdiawan, R.Tarigan, J.Riva, W.F.Kurniawan, I.Sitorus, S.Mustikasari, REuropean Tropical Forest Research Network (ETFRN)Wageningen, Netherlands2004non-timber forest productsresource managementconferencesChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1589Asbjornsen, H., Angelsen, A., Belcher, B., Michon, G., Ruiz Perez, M., Wijesekara, V.R.P.(eds.) Proceedings of the Workshop Cultivating (in) Tropical Forests?: the Evolution and Sustainability of Systems of Management between Extractivism and Plantations, 28 June – 1 July 2000, Kraemmervika, Lofoten, NorwayIDForest products for the poor, the rich or the middle class? Three cases from IndonesiaAngelsen, A.Rio, N.Loken, A.Tarigan, JEuropean Tropical Forest Research Network (ETFRN)Wageningen, Netherlands2004non-timber forest productsusesRiaucase studiesconferencesChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1591Asbjornsen, H., Angelsen, A., Belcher, B., Michon, G., Ruiz Perez, M., Wijesekara, V.R.P.(eds.) Proceedings of the Workshop Cultivating (in) Tropical Forests?: the Evolution and Sustainability of Systems of Management between Extractivism and Plantations, 28 June – 1 July 2000, Kraemmervika, Lofoten, NorwayIDThe challenge to natural forest management in Sub-Saharan Africa rural development: experiences from the miombo woodlands of Southern AfricaKowero, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003forest resourceswoodlandsrural developmentcommunity involvementChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1412Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaIDOverview: institutional arrangements for managing woodlandsCampbell, B.M.Shackleton, S.Wollenberg, ECIFORBogor, Indonesia2003institutionspolicywoodlandsChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1413Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaIDLocal organisations and natural resource management in the face of economic hardship: a case study from ZimbabweMukamuri, B.B.Campbell, B.M.Kowero, G.SCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003institutionsorganizationsparticipatory rural appraisalwoodlandsforest managementlocal peopleeconomic reformChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1414Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaZWInstitutional arrangements governing natural resource management of the Miombo woodlandKayambazinthu, D.Matose, F.Kajembe, G.C.Nemarundwe, NCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003community involvementchangeinstitutionscommon property resourcesChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1415Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaZWAn overview: the influence of major policies on forestryKowero, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003forest policyland policyagricultural policylegislationChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1416Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaZWEvolution of land policies and legislation in Malawi and Zimbabwe: implications for forestry developmentMataya, C.Gondo, P.Kowero, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003land policylegislationforest resourcescustomary lawland managementwoodlandsChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1417Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaMWLand policies in Mozambique and Tanzania: implications for forestry developmentNhantumbo, I.Monela, G.C.Kowero, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003land policylegislationland useforestry developmentforestry lawparticipationChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1418Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaMZAgricultral policies and forestry development in Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zimbabwe: complementarities and conflictsMlay, G.Turuka, F.Kowero, G.Kachule, RCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003deforestationshifting cultivationland useagricultural policyeconomic reformChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1419Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaMWForest policies in Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and ZimbabweKowero, G.Kaoneka, A.S.Nhantumbo, I.Gondo, P.Jumbe, C.B.LCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003policyforest policycommunitieslegislationChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1420Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaMWAn overview: reconciling demands on woodlands through modellingKowero, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003modelswoodlandscommunity involvementChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1421Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaMWA system dynamics model for management of Miombo woodlandsSumaila, U.R.Angelsen, A.Kowero, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003systemswoodlandsforest managementChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1422Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaMWManual for users of MIOMBOSM: a simulation model for the management of Miombo woodlandsKowero, G.Sumaila, U.RCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003simulation modelsforest managementwoodlandsmodelsChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1423Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaMWA goal programming model for planning management of Miombo woodlandsNhantumbo, I.Kowero, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003planningwoodlandsChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1424Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaMWLinear and goal programming models for analysis of policy impacts on livelihoods in Miombo of MozambiqueNhantumbo, I.Mlay, G.Kowero, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003livelihoodspolicylinear programmingmodelsanalysisChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1425Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaMZPolicy impact on woodland resource management, use and conservation in Mozambique: a case study of selected sites in Dondo, Nhamatanda, Gondola and Manica districtsMlay, G.Falcao, M.Nhantumbo, I.Kowero, GCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003policysystemscase studieswoodlandsforest managementconservationusesChapteren979-3361-22-0CIFOR Head Quarter1426Kowero, G., Campbell, B.M., Sumaila, U.R. (eds.) Policies and governance structures in woodlands of Southern AfricaMZFrom Rio to Johannesburg and beyond: forest conservation and rural livelihoods in the global SouthKaimowitz, DOrganizing Committee of the XII World Forestry CongressQuebec, Canada2003povertyconservationlocal communityconferencesIn the last few years, forests have lost their previous prominence on the international agenda. The forestry and conservation community needs to work hard to change that because forests can contribute greatly to meeting the challenges of poverty, disease, access to clean water, biodiversity conservation, climate change and violent conflict. There have been more successes than most policy-makers realize, particularly in the areas of devolving rights over forests to disadvantaged groups and forest restoration. Poverty Reduction Strategies should ensure that poor people maintain access to forest safety nets and provide support for small-scale forest-based enterprises. Biodiversity conservation strategies in developing countries should: 1) reduce incentives for forest destruction, 2) give rights to groups that are less likely to destroy forests; 3) pay people to conserve biodiversity, and 4) focus on landscape mosaics, in addition to supporting protected areas. World leaders should recognize the potential contribution of forests to global peace and take action to realize that potential.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1410Proceedings of the XXII World Forestry Congress: forests, source of life. Quebec City, Canada Sept. 21 to 28, 2003MZIntroductionFerroukhi, L.Larson, A.M.Pacheco, PCIFOR and IDRCBogor, Indonesia2003decentralizationChapteren979-3361-05-0CIFOR Head Quarter1400Ferroukhi, L.(ed.) Municipal forest management in Latin AmericaMZGrowth and timber quality of Tectona grandis in high input plantations of Costa RicaPerez Cordero, L.D.Kanninen, M2003forest plantationsTectona grandiswoodvolumebiomassthinningpruningmarketsconferencesLinking forest management to timber industry requirements is fundamental. Connections of silvicultural activities with wood quality are often limited to size-related characteristics, such as minimum DBH. Restrictions set by international markets (e.g. minimum log dimensions, heartwood content and wood defects) limit seriously the marketing options of several forest companies in Costa Rica and many other countries in the area. Therefore, efficient management practices are urgently needed to lead not only to a maximization of per-hectare volume but also to the production of desirable individual-tree dimensions and high quality commercial timber. This paper discusses following topics: aboveground biomass and the applicability on stand density management; wood quality of young and advance aged plantations; effects of stand density on wood quality, results from a thinning trial; effects of stand density on growth and yield, results from a thinning trial; preliminary pruning program, pruning intensity and timing; and total and merchandable volume equations.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1374International Conference on Quality Timber Products of Teak from Sustainable Forest Management, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, India, 2-5 December, 2003CRGoverning forest plantation to reduce poverty and improve forest landscape: a multiagent simulation approachPurnomo, H.Guizol, PModelling and Simulation Society of Australia and New ZealandCanberra, Australia2003governanceforest plantationsartificial intelligencepovertycollaborationNegotiationsimulation modelsconferencesGood forest governance lets all relevant stakeholders participate in the decision-making processes. Illegal logging and forest degradation are currently increasing, and logging bans are ineffective in reducing forest degradation. At the same time interest in forest plantations and concern about poverty problems of people adjacent to forests continue to increase rapidly. Governments have identified the development of small forest plantations as an opportunity to provide wood supplies to forest industries and to reduce poverty. However, the development of small plantations is very slow due to an imbalance of power and suspicion between communities and large companies. Current regulations do not offer many links amongst various stakeholders. The paper proposes a framework to link up social, economic and biophysical dynamics using multiagent simulation to explore scenarios of collaboration for plantations. Multiagent simulation is a branch of artificial intelligence that offers a promising approach to deal with multi stakeholder management systems, such as the case involving common pool of resources. It provides a framework, which allows analysis of stakeholders’ (or agents’) decisions in interaction. Each stakeholder has explicit communication capacities, behaviors and rational from which emerge specific actions. The purpose of this modeling is to create a common dynamic representation to facilitate negotiations to grow trees. Collaborations involving multistakeholders, especially local communities and wood based industries, appeared to offer the most promising pathway to accelerate plantation development toward local communities’ poverty alleviation and forest landscape improvement.Chapteren1-74052-098-XCIFOR Head Quarter1373Post, D.A.(ed.) MODSIM 2003 International Congress on Modelling and Simulation: Integrative Modelling of Biophysical, Social and Economic Systems for Resource Management Solutions, 14-17 July, 2003, Townsville, AustraliaCRIntroduccionFerroukhi, L.Larson, A.M.Pacheco, PCIFOR and IDRCBogor, Indonesia2003Also available in English.Chapteres979-3361-05-0CIFOR Head Quarter1366Ferroukhi, L. (ed.) La gestion forestal municipal en American latinaCRMunicipalidades y participation local en la gestion forestal en BoliviaPacheco, PCIFOR and IDRCBogor, Indonesia2003decentralizationlocal governmentcentral governmentforest resourcesforest managementThis chapter analyses the model of decentralization of forest management in Bolivia, and assess its main outcomes. Though significant functions were delegated to municipalities regarding forest resources such as control of forest crime, monitoring of forest management, delimitation and allocation of municipal reserves, the central state has reserved by itself some key functions regarding forest resources allocation and formulation of forest regulations. Besides the powers delegated to local governments, there are other factors that influence on decentralization such as the political economy of municipalities, the social pressures of local forest users over the local government, and the property regimes. Those conditioning factors affect the institutional capacity of local governments to deal with forest management which is also influenced by the amount of forest resources municipalities spend on their municipal forest units, the human resources capacities, and the degrees of transparency in decision making within local governments. The interactions of all those factors define the diverse results that decentralization has in practice for people and forest resources.Chapteres979-3361-05-0CIFOR Head Quarter1367Ferroukhi, L. (ed.) La gestion forestal municipal en American latinaBOGestion forestal municipal en Nicaragua: decentralizacion de cargas, centralization de beneficiosLarson, A.MCIFOR and IDRCBogor, Indonesia2003decentralizationlocal governmentforest managementChapteres979-3361-05-0CIFOR Head Quarter1368Ferroukhi, L.(ed.) La gestion forestal municipal en American latinaNIConclusionesLarson, A.M.Ferroukhi, LCIFORBogor, Indonesia2003Also available in EnglishChapteres979-3361-05-0CIFOR Head Quarter1369Ferroukhi, L.(ed.) La gestion forestal municipal en American latinaNIConclusionsLarson, A.M.Ferroukhi, LCIFOR and IDRCBogor, Indonesia2003local governmentforest managementChapteren979-3361-05-0CIFOR Head Quarter1401Ferroukhi, L. (ed.) Municipal forest management in Latin AmericaNIMunicipal forest management in Nicaragua: decentralized burdens, decentralized benefitsLarson, A.MCIFOR and IDRCBogor, Indonesia2003local governmentdecentralizationforest managementChapteren979-3361-05-0CIFOR Head Quarter1402Ferroukhi, L.(ed.) Municipal forest management in Latin AmericaNIMunicipalities and local participation in forest management in BoliviaPacheco, PCIFOR and IDRCBogor, Indonesia2003decentralizationlocal governmentforest resourcesforest managementThis chapter analyses the model of decentralization of forest management in Bolivia, and assess its main outcomes. Though significant functions were delegated to municipalities regarding forest resources such as control of forest crime, monitoring of forest management, delimitation and allocation of municipal reserves, the central state has reserved by itself some key functions regarding forest resources allocation and formulation of forest regulations. Besides the powers delegated to local governments, there are other factors that influence on decentralization such as the political economy of municipalities, the social pressures of local forest users over the local government, and the property regimes. Those conditioning factors affect the institutional capacity of local governments to deal with forest management which is also influenced by the amount of forest resources municipalities spend on their municipal forest units, the human resources capacities, and the degrees of transparency in decision making within local governments. The interactions of all those factors define the diverse results that decentralization has in practice for people and forest resources.Chapteres979-3361-05-0CIFOR Head Quarter1403Ferroukhi, L.(ed.) Municipal forest management in Latin AmericaBONative tourism, natural forests and local incomes on Ilha Grande, BrazilWunder, SEdward Elgar PublishingCheltenham, UK2003nature tourismtourismforestsincomesocial impactdevelopment planslocal peopleTourism on Ilha Grande is to an overwhelming extent nature-based and the attractiveness of the island as a tourist destination is neatly linked to its extensive forest coverage. At about 150 km from Rio de Janeiro and 400 km from São Paulo, Ilha Grande is close to two of the most populous cities in the southern hemisphere. It thus caters predominantly to native Brazilian tourists. Looking specifically at local incomes from low-income tourism in the case of the traditional fishermen’s village of Aventureiro, the hypothesis that ‘backpackers leave no money on the island’ was clearly rejected. Campers spend little per capita, but their large numbers generate sizeable incomes. The discourse of the tourism planners on Ilha Grande generally was about environmental carrying capacity – ‘degradation of the environment’ – yet the substance behind it is actually about perceptional limits. Has perceptional carrying capacity objectively been surpassed? Obviously not, since limits are subjective and differ enormously between, on the one hand, the low-spending students – and the camping ground owners catering to them – and, on the other, the higher middle-class tourist – and the up-market hostel owners with considerable investments at stake. The study concludes that native tourism can have significant positive spin-offs on both livelihoods and environmental conservation, but considerable trade-offs between tourism types and stakeholder interests can develop over the life cycle of a tourism destination, paving the way for struggles around the political economy of tourism.Chapteren1-84376-257-9CIFOR Head Quarter1344Gossling, S. (ed.) Tourism and development in tropical islands: political ecology perspectivesBRFrom research to impact - and tricky part between itSpilsbury, M.JFAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificBangkok, Thailand2001impactpolicyresearchconferencesChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1345Proceedings of the expert consultation on communication between forestry researchers and policy makers and stakeholders: held on May 8th-9th, 2001, Chiang Mai, ThailandBREmpowering forest dwellers and managing forests more sustainably in the landscapes of BorneoCampbell, B.M.Gunarso, P.Kartawinata, K.Levang, P.Rhee, S.Sheil, D.Sist, P.Wollenberg, EFAORome, Italy2003community forestrycommunitieslocal governmentresearch projectsforest managementparticipationpartnershipsCIFORThis case study covers work in the Malinau catchment in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, a vast area of primary and secondary forest with scattered villages. The project has evolved to focus on key factors underlying poverty and forest loss. Inappropriate harvesting is reducing biodiversity, limiting regrowth of valuable species, and reducing water quality. The research aims to produce positive local impacts, while at the same time generating international public goods. Integration is achieved through a variety of annual and other meetings where multiple stakeholders, including especially local communities, gather to reflect on progress, and jointly plan for the next year. Conceptual models are used at such meetings to assist in building an integrated understanding of the inter-connected problems and opportunities. Participatory action research (PAR) is a feature of the work, allowing the research partnerships to rapidly adapt to fast-changing circumstances. The results have indicated the cost-effectiveness of reduced impact logging, but the difficulties of establishing and enforcing appropriate policies have proven to be the main factors limiting sustainable forest management. In the current phase of the work further effort will be given to spatial planning, in addition to capacity building of communities and district officials in this area. The research team has already contributed to the official land-use plan for the district, which incorporates some aspects of landscape management derived from the research.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1347Hardwood, R.R. and Kassam, A.H. (eds.) Research towards integrated natural resources management: examples of research problems, approaches and partnerships in action in the CGIARBRGetting forestry research into policy and practiceSpilsbury, M.J2002forestryresearchimpactpolicyconferencesThe paper applies a broad-brush perspective to policy change processes, forestry research and innovation. It considers patterns of research and impact and the impacts linked to them in developing countries. It highlights some research successes, failures opportunities and constraints in the hope of improving the focus and relevance of future efforts. It highlights the fact that for most of last century, forestry research was predominantly focused on achieving 'efficiency gains' in forest production systems, and that this focus was shared by both private enterprise and prevailing approaches to broader 'development' in developing countries. It asserts that there has been difficulty in realising research-induced efficiency gains in the developing tropics and suggest some of the underlying reasons for this. The paper articulates the difference between the influence and impact of research, and makes suggestions as to how research uptake processes can be better understood through the use of concepts such as ‘impact pathways’ and diffusion of innovations. The paper argues that researchers must go beyond passive dissemination of their outputs and invest in collaboration and alliances as important strategies to enhance research uptake and impact. The paper draws on previous studies of how science has influenced national and international forest related policy-debates, and on studies of the uptake of CIFOR's Criteria and Indicators research. The findings from these studies suggest that the lack of uptake and impact of most forestry research initiatives is due to a number of factors including: reliance on passive dissemination, poor understanding of research uptake and diffusion processes both at technical and policy levels and a lack of effective engagement or collaboration with influential actors. The paper argues that there should be a greater emphasis on 'action' research that includes 'policy actors' at various levels. Pragmatic strategies to enhance the likelihood of policy influence are described.http://iufro.boku.ac.at/iufro/taskforce/tfscipol/chennai-papers/fspilsbury.pdfChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1348Proceedings of the IUFRO Task Force on the Science/Policy Interface International Workshop on Forest Science and Forest Policy in the Asia-Pacific Region: Building Bridges to a Sustainable Future, held in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, on 16-19 July 2002BRForests, water and mixed land use mosaics in developing countries: making research solutions effectiveSpilsbury, M.JInternational Forestry Cooperation Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and FisheriesTokyo, Japan2002water resourcesland managementforestsland usepolicydeveloping countrieswatershedsconferencesThis paper summarises some of the prevailing issues and challenges in relation to forests and water. It highlights some of the key constraints to the utilisation of existing knowledge. Hydrological processes may be well understood at a plot level, or for a single particular land use/landcover type at a catchment scale but become more uncertain at larger spatial scales or at smaller scales where the same processes operate across multiple land uses and management regimes. Most watershed management projects give little priority to research and monitoring, even though these are essential to effective watershed management and essential for establishing the efficacy of water management interventions. Given that interventions in mixed landscapes will be via multiple actors at a range of scales such monitoring feedback is essential to identifying, and reinforcing, those that are effective. Monitoring must track social, economic and biophysical variables that are useful and cost effective for management. The paper concludes that future research efforts should focus on how to maximise the provision of environmental services in mixed land use mosaics, and suggests how to improve research uptake and influence at policy levels since existing research has failed to sufficiently inform public policy debates. Consortium approaches to research that have close links to policy and development processes are required and should pay great attention to the factors and processes that influence research uptake in order to narrow the gulf between popular conventional wisdom, public policy and scientific knowledge.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1349Secretariat of the International Expert Meeting on Forest and Water (comp.) Proceedings of the Meeting on International Expert Meeting on Forests and Water, 20-22 November 2002, Shiga, JapanBRShifting power to the periphery: the impact of decentralisation on forests and forest peopleResosudarmo, I.A.PInstitute of Southeast Asian StudiesSingapore2003decentralizationforest resourcesincomenatural resourcesresource managementlocal governmentAfter decades of central government control, the recent decentralization laws devolved authority in many areas, including natural resource management, to local governments. This article examines the initial process of decentralization in Indonesia within the context of forestry. Preliminary analyses suggest that decentralization has profoundly affected the course of forest resource management, though in many cases it has also been influenced by the spirit of reformasi. Local governments, motivated both by necessity and opportunity, attempt to generate local revenues from forest resources without adequate consideration of the social and environmental consequences. It appears that with decentralization, local people may only gain limited short-term benefits from timber production.Chapteren981-230-202-6CIFOR Head Quarter1334Aspinall, E. and Fealy, G. (eds.) Local power and politics in Indonesia: decentralization and democratizationIDHutan dan otonomi daerah: tantangan berbagi suka dan dukaResosudarmo, I.A.P.Dermawan, AYayasan Obor IndonesiaJakarta, Indonesia2003forest resourcesforest policydecentralizationlegislationforestry lawregional governmentincomeFor more than thirty years beginning in the early 70’s, the forests of Indonesia were administered and managed centrally; mirroring the centralistic characteristics of the way the Indonesian government had functioned during the same period. The first day of year 2001, however, marked a momentous change in Indonesian history, when it is formally effective that the authority or power of a significant chunk of decision-making in various aspects was transferred to local governments, including authority with regard forests. This paper attempts to present documentation and preliminary findings on what has been happening in the forestry arena in the period of transition from a centrally managed administration to decentralized administration. Field research has been done from the first quarter until the third quarter of year 2000 in four forest-rich provinces to document the process of decentralization on the ground. The methodology used was interviews with numerous informants of various stakeholders in forestry or forestry related activities at the provincial, regency, and village levels, in addition to secondary data for background materials. Preliminary findings suggest that the general perceptions of the regions toward decentralization were a mix of enthusiasm, pessimism, confusion, uncertainty, and pride in taking more responsibility. Regions have tended to be more proactive in taking advantage of their potential to raise revenues from forests. These will undoubtedly have some implications on forest resources and communities living in forested areas.Chapterid979-461-421-XCIFOR Head Quarter1335Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Ke mana harus melangkah?: masyarakat hutan, dan perumusan kebijakan di IndonesiaIDTinjauan atas kebijakan sektor perkayuan dan kebijakan terkait lainnyaResosudarmo, I.A.PYayasan Obor IndonesiaJakarta, Indonesia2003forest managementtimbersforest exploitationeconomic developmentforest policyreviewsThe forests of Indonesia have been a major source of foreign exchange and have provided substantial employment opportunities. But evidence indicates that commercial forest harvests in Indonesia have been carried out in an economically unsustainable manner. The dramatic economic and political changes in Indonesia in 1997-99 have potentially increased pressures on remaining timber resources, and the economic crisis and national leadership transition have given rise to demands for substantial changes in the management of forests. It is therefore timely to review commercial timber activities and policies to date. This paper reviews commercial forest practices and national forestry policies that affect the commercial timber sector, along with contributing factors outside the forestry sector that may have affected commercial forest practices. It finds that existing policies are insufficient to achieve sustainable management, or are ineffectively enforced. At the same time, current conditions offer an opportunity to carry out important policy changes in relation to the commercial timber sector. A preliminary analysis of these changes shows the timber sector is subject to greater potential pressures than ever before, but that there are also possibilities for important policy improvements.Chapterid979-461-421-XCIFOR Head Quarter1336Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Ke mana harus melangkah?: masyarakat hutan, dan perumusan kebijakan di IndonesiaIDDevolusi dan undang-undang kehutanan baru IndonesiaKartodihardjo, H.Wollenberg, EYayasan Obor IndonesiaJakarta, Indonesia2003forestry lawforest resourcesright of accesscommunitiesgovernmentIndonesia’s new basic forestry law makes some promising steps towards devolving control over forests to customary communities. This chapter analyzes the law’s provisions for new institutional arrangements, “customary communities” and co-operatives. The analysis shows how the extent of centralized control over these institutions potentially limits the law’s support for local management. Rights to local management under the new law are vulnerable to abuse if they are aquired by unintended parties. Empowerment of customary communities is constrained by the restrictions on economic rights. For devolution to occur, the implementing regulations should create legal possibilities for communities to manage with more certainty, to gain secure access to valuable economic benefits and to overcome conflicts with more powerful groups. A broader base of civil society organisational capacity and systematic checks and balances within government are necessary to support these changes.Chapterid979-461-421-XCIFOR Head Quarter1337Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Ke mana harus melangkah?: masyarakat hutan, dan perumusan kebijakan di IndonesiaIDReformasi konsesi HPH: mempertanyakan paradigma "pembalakan lestari" (sustainable logging)Barr, CYayasan Obor IndonesiaJakarta, Indonesia2003loggingconcessionsforest policychangesustainabilityeconomic analysisSince the mid-1980s, policy discussions aimed at promoting sustainable forest management in Indonesia have focused almost exclusively on reforming the HPH (Hak Pengusahaan Hutan) timber concession system. Policy interventions proposed by the World Bank and other advocates of the “sustainable logging” reform agenda have generally been structured around three key principles – selective cutting, full rent capture, and market-based efficiency. This chapter examines five basic assumptions made by proponents of HPH reform and the policy prescriptions that emerge from them. It argues that HPH reform is unlikely to succeed in reducing Indonesia’s timber harvests to the 'sustainability threshhold' of 25 million m3 per year promoted by the government in the 1990s. The HPH reform agenda fails to address the supply-demand imbalance that exists within Indonesia’s wood processing industries and new technologies that have made previously marginal areas and species commercially viable. It also overlooks the marked decline in the volume of logs generated by concession-holders since the 1980s, as well as a corresponding rise in large-scale forest conversion. Moreover, proponents of the “sustainable logging” paradigm erroneously conclude that sustainable concession management is profitable and that timber companies will have an economic incentive to employ sustainable harvesting practices if they are required to do so.Chapterid979-461-421-XCIFOR Head Quarter1338Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Ke mana harus melangkah?: masyarakat hutan, dan perumusan kebijakan di IndonesiaIDPolitik ekonomi subsektor perkebunan kelapa sawit di IndonesiaCasson, AYayasan Obor IndonesiaJakarta, Indonesia2003oil palmsplantationsforest plantationsdevelopmenteconomic crisesenvironmental degradationThe Indonesian oil palm subsector expanded rapidly after 1967. Much of this growth has occured in the last decade and posed a significant threat to Indonesia's existing forest cover. It has also displaced local communities and increased social conflict. This chapter attempted to determine where the growth has already occured, what effect this growth has had on forest cover, and the implications of further growth on Indonesia's forests. Over the last decade, oil palm development has primarily occured within Sumatra and increasingly in Kalimantan. Plantations development has been directed to Eastern Indonesia primarily in Kalimantan and Irian Jaya but industry was more interested in developing plantations in Sumatra because it has necessary infrastructure required to process palm oil and labours. This has increased the potential for further expansion to be located within production forest, limited production forest, and, increasingly, protected forest areas. However, companies continue to apply for concessions in Kalimantan and Irian Jaya so that they can gain access to timber readily available in these outher islands. This explains why many oil palm developments are occuring on production forestlands in Kalimantan and Irian Jaya. The allocation of production forestland to oil palm developer has accelerated conversion and environmental degradation.Chapterid979-461-421-XCIFOR Head Quarter1339Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Ke mana harus melangkah?: masyarakat hutan, dan perumusan kebijakan di IndonesiaIDDampak krisis dan perubahan politik, 1997-1999Sunderlin, W.DYayasan Obor IndonesiaJakarta, Indonesia2003economic crisesagricultural sectorforestsforest policyhouseholdsAn economic crisis and political changes that have occurred in Indonesia since 1997 have presented grave dangers but also important opportunities for the country. On the one hand, the depreciation of the rupiah against the dollar is part of a drastic economic downturn, but on the other hand, it represents an opportunity for increased competitiveness of Indonesian exports and for increased prosperity for those involved in the export economy. The changeover of regimes from Soeharto to B.J. Habibie led to much political instability, which compounded economic problems, but at the same time it has offered the potential for fundamental policy changes. This article assesses the consequences of these changes -- both negative and positive -- on people living in forested areas, on commercial activity within the forest sector and on the extent of forest itself. Among the findings are that: (1) two-thirds of the people in forested areas have become worse off during the crisis compared with their situation in the year before the crisis; (2) during the crisis small farmers increased clearing of forests for perennial tree crops and decreased attention to food crops in shifting cultivation systems; (3) pulp and paper have replaced plywood as the mainstay source of export revenue in the forest sector, although the origins of this transformation pre-date the crisis and the change cannot be solely explained by the crisis; (4) illegal logging has boomed during the crisis, but also cannot be entirely explained by the crisis; (5) oil palm development has slowed in the crisis period but is poised for future growth; and (6) positive forest policy changes have been introduced but in general fall short of the expectations of the reform community in Indonesia.Chapterid979-461-421-XCIFOR Head Quarter1340Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Ke mana harus melangkah?: masyarakat hutan, dan perumusan kebijakan di IndonesiaIDHutang perusahaan dan sektor kehutanan IndonesiaBarr, C.Brown, D.Casson, A.Kaimowitz, DYayasan Obor IndonesiaJakarta, Indonesia2003economic crisesforest products industriesplantation cropscompaniesdebtriskforestsThe Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency (IBRA) holds US$ 4.1 billion in loans related to forest and estate crop activities, of which US$ 2.7 billion are nonperforming. Ten large conglomerates account for over 70% of the bad forest and estate crop debt. These groups are also responsible for some US$ 2.4 billion in domestic nonperforming loans in other sectors and US$ 15 billion in offshore debt. The current high level of non-performing loans stems, in large part, from the failure by banks to exercise due diligence (i.e., seriously assess the potential for loan default) when Indonesia’s forest-linked conglomerates sought to borrow funds prior to the crisis. Direct government subsidies for forest and estate crop activities also encouraged corporate risk taking. Strong evidence suggests that debt write-offs and loan restructuring may provide Indonesia’s forest-related industries with a substantial capital subsidy. This study projects that IBRA will eventually write-off US$ 1.3 – 1.9 billion of debts associated with timber, wood processing, pulp and paper, and oil palm investments. Debt write-off on this scale, together with IBRA’s current lack of supervision over the forest-related companies that owe it large sums of money, will serve as an impetus for debtor firms to continue to engage in practices involving an inordinate degree of financial risk.Chapterid979-461-421-XCIFOR Head Quarter1341Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Ke mana harus melangkah?: masyarakat hutan, dan perumusan kebijakan di IndonesiaIDKebakaran hutan di Indonesia: dampak dan pemecahannyaApplegate, G.Smith, R.Fox, J.J.Mitchell, A.Packham, D.Tapper, N.Baines, GYayasan Obor IndonesiaJakarta, Indonesia2003forest firesfire effectsfire preventionpolicyinstitutionsThe severe fires that burned over 9.7 million ha of Indonesia in 1997/98 occurred in an El Niño year. Much of the impact of fires could have been avoided if appropriate fire management systems were in place and policies relating to fire and land use were appropriate to deal with the situation. The fires affected a large portion of the Indonesian population causing economic hardship and disruption to commerce and short and long term health problems. The smoke and haze generated by the fires also caused disruptions and economic loss to many neighbouring countries, causing diplomatic tensions. Much of the haze was generated by burning peat which not only generates 17 times more smoke than forests, but as a fossil fuel contributed over 700 tonnes of carbon dioxide in harmful emissions over an eight-month period. This chapter provides an assessment of the fire situation in 1997/98 and some technical and institutional policy recommendations to reduce the risk of fire prior to and during the next El Niño event currently predicted to occur in 2001.Chapterid979-461-421-XCIFOR Head Quarter1342Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Ke mana harus melangkah?: masyarakat hutan, dan perumusan kebijakan di IndonesiaIDSepuluh usulan untuk menjelaskan kebakaran di KalimantanColfer, C.J.PYayasan Obor IndonesiaJakarta, Indonesia2003forest firesfire causescommunity forestryThis short paper summarizes the conclusions of a 1999 investigation into the causes of fires in six communities in East Kalimantan. Drawing on the author’s long term experience with the Kenyah (inhabitants of five of the communities), perceived causes of the fires in these six locations were documented. Ten propositions relating to fire causes are listed here, as a preliminary step in the development of a typology of causes of fire. The first three general propositions relate to environmental conditions like drought, to human conditions like the response time required to adapt to environmental change, and to political conditions like corrupt and uncoordinated governance. Five propositions revolve around the conditions that evolve when multiple actors with different values, patterns of behaviour, and access to resources are thrown together. The final two propositions relate to economic issues (potential for gain and need). The paper concludes with a simple scoring system that may contribute to identifying fire-prone communities in the future, and to developing appropriate solutions to the relevant fire causes.Chapterid979-461-421-XCIFOR Head Quarter1343Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Ke mana harus melangkah?: masyarakat hutan, dan perumusan kebijakan di IndonesiaIDPepper in a time of crisis: price booms, government subsidies and smallholder response during and after the Asian economic crisisWadley, R.L.Sissman, KUniversity of Copenhagen, Institute of GeographyCopenhagen, Denmark2003cash cropspriceseconomic crisestraditional societyconferencesBeginning in 1997, international prices for black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) boomed for about three years, coinciding with the Asian economic crisis. Smallholders throughout Southeast Asia responded to the price rises by investing more labor into existing pepper gardens as well as planting new gardens. While this is part of an old pattern with such boom-and-bust cash crops, the unique historical circumstance surrounding the most recent boom was the Asian crisis. Here we compare the response of Iban pepper smallholders to this situation on either side of the international border separating Sarawak, Malaysia and West Kalimantan, Indonesia. On both sides, Iban benefited from the higher prices, but many households without productive vines at the onset of high prices were too late as their new gardens had hardly matured before prices fell in 2000. In the study communities, the Iban Kalimantan significantly reduced their labor migration to focus on pepper during the period of high prices, whereas the Sarawak Iban relied on rather specific off-farm income sources in the tourism, off-shore oil and gas industries, and did not significantly alter their pepper cultivation strategies. The mutual buffering capacity of hill rice cultivation and pepper farming described in an earlier study in Sarawak was not evident in the study communities.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1326Mertez, O., Wadley, R.L., Christensen, A.E. (eds.) Local land use strategies in a globalizing world: shaping sustainable social and natural environments. Proceedings of the international conference, held on August 21-23, 2003, in Institute of Geography, University of Copenhagen, DenmarkIDObservations of long-term change in an African rain forestSheil, DTropenbos InternationalWageningen, Netherlands2003rain forestsstemsspeciesplant successionchangeThis account summarises studies based on tree data from plots established during the 1930s and 1940s in Budongo, a Ugandan rain forest. The original interpretations of forest change provoked controversies that continue to the present day. Analyses have yielded three categories of results: the first is descriptive; the second is a more focused evaluation of the relationship between forest change and species persistence; and the third is methodological. This summary focuses on the first two by examining stem, species and stand level patterns of change and introduces some previously unpublished results relating to trends in species traits and characters. Evidence confirms the successional nature of the original series of plots. However, the time series changes are complex and while the younger vegetation plots develop more or less as expected the older plots do not. Disturbances caused by silvicultural intervention in four of the five longer-term plots compromise some evaluations, but also allow the effects of such disturbances to be observed. Various anticipated aspects of forest change are verified. Examples include the slowing of forest dynamics with maturity, and the increase in potential canopy height. However, other observations, such as the real-time increase in tree recruitment are less expected and require explanation. Viewed overall, the results suggest an interplay of many factors that must be explored in greater depth. The importance of truly long-term studies is highlighted.Chapteren90-5113-065-1CIFOR Head Quarter1328ter Steege, Hans (eds.) Long-term changes in tropical tree diversity as a result of natural and man made disturbances: studies from the Guiana Shield, Africa, Borneo and MelanesiaUGDeforestation-forestationAngelsen, A2001tropical forestsdeforestationcauseseconomic analysisThe article first reviews rates and definitions of tropical deforestation and the environmental implications in terms of climate change, biodiversity loss, and reduced supply of forest products. Tropical deforestation and other land use changes contributed about 20% of the global anthropogenic CO2 emissions during the 1990s. The main focus of the article is on the driving forces of deforestation. The starting point is to investigate which factors make deforestation the most attractive option to farmers, private companies and governments – the immediate causes of deforestation. These include high agricultural prices, easy access to forests and lack of alternative employment. The effects of other factors such as agricultural technologies, poverty and property rights appear to be more context specific. These factors are determined by broader forces, the underlying causes of deforestation, but the links are complex making global generalizations difficult. In fact, the empirical foundation for much of the conventional wisdom on the underlying causes is surprisingly weak. The article also underscores to the political economy dimension of tropical deforestation. Different groups have unequal access to the forest and policies are often designed to benefit elite interests.Chapteren0-08-043076-7CIFOR Head Quarter1330Smelser, N., Baltes, P.B. (eds.) International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciencesUGIn situ conservation of Swietenia macrophylla (big-leaf mahogany)Snook, L.KIPGRIRome, Italy2001Swietenia macrophyllain situ conservationregenerationecologyChapteren92-9043-472-4CIFOR Head Quarter1320Forest genetic resources conservation and management: in managed natural forests and protected areasUGFirst experiences with adaptive co-management in Para, Brazilian AmazonPokorny, B.Cayres, G.Nunes, W.Segebart, D.Drude, REmbrapa Amazonia OrientalBelem, Brazil2003collaborationcommunity forestrycriteriaindicatorsAdaptive Co-Management (ACM) is an integrative approach for implementing sustainable forest management, based on a main hypothesis, that is: if there is a high degree of collaboration between stakeholders combined with a high adaptiveness of management systems, the result will be a higher degree of human well-being and ecological sustainability. A worldwide network under the umbrella of the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) is engaged in researching the potential and methodological aspects related to ACM. Financed by CIFOR and the German Development Cooperation (GTZ), an ACM team started to work on ACM in Para, in 2000. ACM pilot activities in Pará were carried out in three sites, each reflecting different realities of communities established in the Eastern Amazon region. Research was focused on the concept of Collaborative Diagnostic Studies (CDS) as an opportunity to replace externally driven background studies which are important for documentation and impact monitoring, for a collaborative evaluation of an expert defined set of criteria and indicators for assessing sustainability (C&I). The research considered the definition of a set of C&I suitable for discussion with local actors, the test of strategies to accomplish CDS and the elaboration of a reporting system to document the ACM process. According to the central hypothesis of ACM, the defined set of C&I was structured in three categories: collaboration, adaptive management of natural resources and impacts/conditions. A variety of participatory methods were tested, described and evaluated in relation to their contribution to ACM. Finally an ACM database system was defined, based on reports for (1) evaluation of C&I, (2) documentation of activities, (3) description of methods and (4) evaluation of the ACM process. Pilot studies showed that CDS are not suitable as a substitute for background studies. Special efforts have to be undertaken so as to diminish the danger of external dominance and to ensure the participation of local actors. The pilot studies also confirmed the need for a systematic and well structured documentation of the complex and dynamic processes related to ACM. Pilot studies also showed the high potential of ACM for implementing sustainable forest management. Due to the promising results, it is recommended to focus ACM research in Brazil on work shared with Local Researcher Teams. In order to establish ACM as a viable development strategy in the Amazon region, an intensive collaboration with existing community projects is desired. ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1317Sabogal, C. and Silva, N. (eds.) Integrated management of neotropical rain forests by industries and communitiesBRNavigating complexity, diversity and dynamism: reflections on research for natural resource managementMcDougall, C.Braun, AEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2003participationresource managementnatural resourcesdiversityintegrated systemslandscaperesearchThis chapter seeks to address the apparent tensions that have arisen between ‘traditional’ and ‘participatory’ research approaches in natural resource management research. It does so not only by exploring the relative strengths and weaknesses of these approaches, but also by underscoring the complexity and dynamism inherent in human and natural systems that NRM research addresses. The chapter argues that the desired improvements in natural resource management demand that research institutions asses, more explicitly and thoughtfully than ever before, the multiple facets of traditional and participatory research approaches and consciously craft appropriate and innovative combinations of approaches for each research initiative.Chapteren1-84407-026-3CIFOR Head Quarter1300Pound, B., Snapp, S., McDougall, C., Braun, A., (eds.) Managing natural resources for sustainable livelihoods: uniting science and participationBRPrinciples for good practice in participatory research: reflecting on lessons from the fieldVernooy, R.McDougall, CEarthscan PublicationsLondon2003participationresource managementnatural resourcesresearchmethodologycase studiesThis chapter draws on case studies and literature to generate a number of ‘principles of good practices’ in participatory research in natural resource management. The intention is that these principles may be useful in the planning and assessment of the rigour of research methodologies.Chapteren1-84407-026-3CIFOR Head Quarter1301Pound, B., Snapp, S., McDougall, C., Braun, A. (eds.) Managing natural resources for sustainable livelihoods: uniting science and participationBRParticipatory action research on adaptive collaborative management of community forests: a multi-country modelMcDougall, C.Prabhu, R.Kusumanto, YEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2003participationresearchmethodologycommunity forestrycase studiesAnnexe 1: Summaries of case studies 2This case study summary highlights CIFOR and partners’ participatory action research based project entitled ‘Adaptive and Collaborative Management of Community Forests’. The project, which included activities in Asia, Africa and Latin America, explored the potential contribution of collaboration and social learning based forest management to enhancing human and forest ecosystem well-being. The project combined participatory action research with more traditional social and biophysical research to create a valuable multi-country comparison that also had positive local impacts.Chapter189-191en1-84407-026-3CIFOR Head Quarter1302Pound, B., Snapp, S., Mc Dougall, C., Braun, A., (eds.) Managing natural resources for sustainable livelihoods: uniting science and participationBRSite management strategy on the forest harvesting and short/long-term rotation of plantationKobayashi, S.Ueda, EJapan Overseas Plantation Center for PulpwoodTokyo, Japan2003forest plantationsrotationsproductivitylogging effectsharvestingrehabilitationforest managementresearch projectsconferencesChapteren4-907839-01-7CIFOR Head Quarter1276Proceedings of the joint meeting for the cooperative research project on ecological impact assessment of tropical plantation forest on the environments, 26 November 2002, Bangkok, ThailandBRIntroductionHyde, W.F.Jintao XuBelcher, BResources for the Future and CIFORWashington, DC2003forest policyeconomicschangeforest managementforestrytransition economiesimpactThis book is about the impacts of China's reforms on the forestry sector of its economy. This chapter introduces the objective of this book which is to examine the experience of China's forestry sector with respect to the full set of forest and nonforest policy reforms introduced since 1978 and followed by a summary of the changes affecting China's forests since 1978, a synopsis of China's forest administration and its geographic organization, and a chronology of China's general reforms and their broad effects. The introductory chapter closes with a review of specific forestry-sector reforms and an introduction to the analytical chapters that follow.Chapteren1-891853-66-XCIFOR Head Quarter1269Hyde, William F., Jintao Xu, Belcher, B.(eds.) China's forests: global lessons from market reformsCNDevolution as a means of expanding local forest management in South ChinaLiu DachangEdmunds, DResources for the Future and CIFORWashington, DC2003forest policychangetransition economiesforest managementdecentralizationcommunity forestryenvironmental servicesproperty rightslocal governmentThis chapter describes the change in the institutional arrangements for property rights to the former collective forest lands and the sifts in oversight responsibility for these lands from central to regional and local governments. The data rely on national forest survey data and the authors' own research experience in 22 villages in China's South and Southwest to illustrate the impacts of these changes. The effects of reforms have changed over time; for example, from initial period of rapid deforestation in early 1980s to gradual reforestation and forest groth in the 1990s. There are variation in impacts between households and between regions and the authors suggest some of the remaining opportunities for policy reform in the sector. Despite the devolution of authority and the growth in both forestland and forest stock, investments in forest management remain more constrained than those in comparable agricultural activities. Individual households now posses the rights to the products of their household plots, and most of the controls on the inputs of productive activities were removed by the late 1980s, but the local bureaus maintain the right to limit harvest levels and shipments of forest products. Various levels of government also impose an array of timber taxes and charges that account for more than 50% of the market value of timber in some provinces. The relevant agencies began increasing these fees shortly after timber prices began to rise in response to market liberalization in 1985. The agencies saw an opportunity to increase their own revenues, and take advantage of it. Since then, taxes and charges have risen more rapidly than timber prices.Chapteren1-891853-66-XCIFOR Head Quarter1286Hyde, William F., Jintao Xu, Belcher, B.(eds.) China's forests: global lessons from market reformsCNForestry, poverty, and rural development: perspectives from the bamboo subsectorRuiz Perez, M.Belcher, B.Maoyi FuXiaosheng YangResources for the Future and CIFORWashington, DC2003forest managementbamboosforestrypovertyrural developmentrural welfareincome distributionnon-timber forest productsThe chapter begins with a summary of the state of rural poverty in China and the potential role of forestry. It continues with a general discussion of the bamboo sector and the evidence from the research regarding the household income effects of the rapid expansion on bamboo production. Bamboo in all of its many uses is the third most important forest products in China. It is a particularly useful product for inquiry because it has not been subject to as many policy restrictions as commercial timber. Therefore, its recent history is more representative of the impacts that unfettered forestry-sector development could have on households incomes and regional development. It than observes that many households have benefited from the expansion in bamboo production, but the poorest have not been the greatest benefactors. Furthermore, bamboo seems to have a role in development, but its importance declines as development progresses. These observations on bamboo do not reject the standard arguments about forestry as a development leader, However, they do prompt the authors to urge caution in their applications, particularly with regard to assistance for the very poorest.Chapteren1-891853-66-XCIFOR Head Quarter1287Hyde, William F., Jintao Xu, Belcher, B.(eds.) China's forests: global lessons from market reformsCNImpacts of policy reforms on forestry environments and biodiversitySayer, J.A.Changjin SunResources for the Future and CIFORWashington, DC2003povertybiodiversityenvironmental policyenvironmental assessmentwatershed managementchangeprotected areastradenon-timber forest productsChina has serious environmental problems but China has begun to address some of them. The data for environmental assesments of China's forests are sparse at best, therefore, the authors survey general impressions before focusing on one representative topic, the loss of biodiveristy that necessarily occurs as China deplete its natural forests. China's large expanse of natural forest may support the largest range of biodiversity as well. Managed forests support some environmental services and they play a crucial role in controlling erosion, but they are not as important as natural forests for the protection of critical habitats and general biodiversity. The central government has identified the enviroment as a focal policy issue for the twenty-first century, and it has begun enforcing compliance with environmental regulations on polluting industries. It is insufficient to presume that comprehensive rules such as increasing forest cover in general, or even saving all natural forests, will solve all forestry problems. Beter data and more thorough analyses are needed to assess the relative magnitudes of these problems and the most effective means of addressing them.Chapteren1-891853-66-XCIFOR Head Quarter1288Hyde, William F., Jintao Xu, Belcher, B.(eds.) China's forests: global lessons from market reformsCNConclusions and policy implicationsHyde, William F.Jintao XuBelcher, B.Runsheng YinJinlong LiuResources for the Future and CIFORWashington, DC2003povertytenure systemspolicynon-timber forest productsforest policyenvironmental impactbamboosproperty rightseconomic developmentThis final chapter reviews the findings of the empirical chapters, summarizes authors observations for China, and explains these observations within the context of global forest policy. The institutions that define land tenure and the means of delivering tenurial rights is one great theme of China's experience--and this book. The impacts of spillovers from policy reform in other sectors and from general economic growth is another. It also reflects on those new issues that arose subsequent to the analyses of the other chapters and those additional issues that are becoming important only now, in the twenty-first century. Forest environmental issues are particularly complex. Finally, tenure continues to be an issue, sometimes with a distributive theme, sometimes with an efficiency theme. Restrictions on household harvest and shipments as well as high levels of forest taxation continue to constrain household forestry incentives. The central government recognizes these issues, but local administratiors will largerly determine whether future growth in China's forestry sector is characterized by imports and product substitution or by domestic production. Chapteren1-891853-66-XCIFOR Head Quarter1289Hyde, William F., Jintao Xu, Belcher, B.(eds.) China's forests: global lessons from market reformsCNWhose devolution is it anyway? divergent constructs, interests and capacities between the poorest forest users and statesEdmunds, D.Wollenberg, EEarthscan PublicationsLondon2003forest policygovernment policycommunity forestrydecision makinggovernanceinstitutionsThis chapter synthesizes results from case studies of the effects of devolution policies on the management of forests in three Asian countries, China, India and the Philippines. It also seeks to explain the disappointing impacts of forest devolution policies in terms of the divergent interests and perceptions of forest departments and local people. Some case studies show the convergence of between state and local interest. Some give examples where local interests have prevailed in spite of state strategies to maintain control. The principle for forest policy should be to create sustainable livelihoods for local resource users, especially the poorest among them, rather than reducing the cost of government forest administration. ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1274Edmunds, D., Wollenberg, E. (eds.) Local forest management: the impacts of devolution policiesCNThe promises and limitations of devolution and local forest management in ChinaLiu DachangEdmunds, DEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2003forest policycommunity involvementdecision makinghouseholdstenure systemslocal governmentThis chapter examines China’s experiment on devolution policies for local forest management. These policies included the transfer of forest management from collectives to households, the involvement of villagers in the management of state forests, and the shift of some decision-making authority in forest management from community and forestry department to more local entities, such a village comities (VCs). The chapter explores the impact of those policies, explains why they have not always lived up to the expectations, of either farmers or government officials. It was found that devolution experience in China have expanded local decision-making authority in forest management, increase the material and environmental benefits that farmers receive from forest and improved forest cover. Another impact is that the local social capital and institutional capacity are stronger as the state has helped to improve local technical expertise and marketing conditions.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1272Edmunds, D., Wollenberg, E. (eds.) Local forest management: the impacts of devolution policiesCNDevelopment of criteria and indicators for forest plantations from assessment toward communication tools for managementGuizol, P.Muhtaman, D.RGadjah Mada University, Faculty of ForestryYogyakarta, Indonesia2001forest plantationssustainabilitycriteriaindicatorsdevelopmentCIFORconferencesThe rapid loss of forest resources from teak plantations in Java is a serious problem that is raising interest in finding new systems of management that will ensure sustained availability of resources. At the same time, all around the world a growing number of stakeholders are becoming involved in forest management. Sustainable forest management (SFM) has become the goal for many countries and stakeholders. But the definition of sustainability may differ significantly among stakeholders, who often have different perceptions and interests. Achieving a common definition of sustainability is the first step needed for stakeholders involved in forest management to reach agreement on goals. An impressive amount of work has already been done to develop criteria and indicators (C&I) for forest sustainability. CIFOR's pioneering work in this area has included efforts to develop a set of C&I for forest plantations. This article describes the process involved in developing these C&I. The process is collaborative and cross-disciplinary, and particularly aims to improve the communication among experts.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1054Hardiyanto, E.B. (ed.) Potentials and opportunities in marketing and trade of plantation teak: challenge for the new millenium. Proceedings of the third regional seminar on teak, July 31-August 4, 2000CNIntroductionEdmunds, D.Wollenberg, E.Contreras, A.P.Liu DachangKelkar, G.Sarin, M.Singh, N.MEarthscan PublicationsLondon2003forest policygovernment policyforest managementchangecommunity involvementimpactThis chapter explains the purpose and methods of the book Local Forest Management. The book uses 12-20 case studies in each China, Philippines and India to understand the impacts of community-based forest management policies of the last two decades. We define impacts in terms of the changes in economic, resource or political space that local people have in forest management. The research seeks to address what the impacts have been, why they occurred and alternative ways in which community-led management is happening.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1271Edmunds, D., Wollenberg, E. (eds.) Local forest management: the impacts of devolution policiesCNPorto de moz: o prefeito, "dono do municipio"Salgado, I.Kaimowitz, DA.S. EditoresNatal2003decentralizationforest managementland useownershiplocal governmentcommunity actionPorto de Moz is a small municipality (22.460 inhabitants) bordered by the Xingu and Amazonas Rivers, in the state of Pará. The local economy is based on small-scale agriculture, fishing, and timber extraction. Land ownership is extremely concentrated, and a large part of the municipal lands are unclaimed and subject to land grabbing by fraudulent and violent means. Control over land is essential for the largest sawmills, which relies on illegal logging. The mayor and his relatives own three of the four local sawmills, and therefore have high stakes in the struggle for land. There are a few grassroots organizations in Porto de Moz whose members overtly oppose and try to resist the abuses of the municipal government. Among these efforts, they formed a “Natural Resource Municipal Committee” which laid plans for a more equitable and sustainable development model in the Municipality, but have never received any support from the local government. Federal and state agencies that could mediate the local conflicts are conspicuously absent from the municipality. The isolation and transportation problems contribute to this situation; however, the mayor’s effort to keep any authority that could interfere with his interests is evident. Porto de Moz is an extreme example of the excessive power that mayors have in the Brazilian system. Nevertheless, it does not mean that decentralization should be avoided, but rather that there must exist effective checks and balances on the local power to prevent this kind of abuse.ChapterptCIFOR Head Quarter1249Toni, F., Kaimowitz, D. Municipios e gestao florestal na AmazoniaCNO papel dos municipios na gestao florestal: licoes dos estudos de casoToni, F.Kaimowitz, DA.S. EditoresNatal2003local governmentinstitutionsforest managementchangecase studiesSince the end of the 1990s, municipal governments are increasingly adopting a pro-environment/pro-forest discourse in Amazonia. In most cases, a strengthening of the local administrative and technical agencies that deal with environment, forest, and land use follows this change in the discourse. In part, this is due to an evolution of the overall political and social context in the country, but also to a few programs and policies that either help or demand changes in local government. For the same reasons, municipal environment and development councils are becoming popular throughout the region. Changes in discourse and administration do not necessarily translate into changes in action. Some municipalities have skilled technical staff, modern equipment and money, but fail to implement sound environmental policies. The mayors have an overwhelming influence over the municipal agenda and are able to prevent popular participation in policy making. This problem is aggravated in municipalities on the agricultural frontier, where land ownership is concentrated, and local elites thrive on the predatory use of natural resources – such as illegal logging and extensive ranching. On the other hand, in municipalities where land use is not experiencing fast change, and where social movements are strong, the local government has a more positive role in forest management. In general, local governments have a very strong indirect influence on land and resource use by means of road building and lobbying for rural credit. Some are engaged in promoting agroforestry, forest certification, and other sustainable practices. Very few local governments show interest in using their prerogatives to establish and manage protected areas, which are considered a barrier to development.ChapterptCIFOR Head Quarter1250Toni, F., Kaimowitz, D. Municipios e gestao florestal na AmazoniaCNLessons from forest rehabilitation through agroforestry trials in lowland Kutai, East Kalimantan, IndonesiaToma, TASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation Project (AKECOP)Suwon, Korea2003forest fireslowland areasrehabilitationgrasslandscommunity forestrycommunity involvementagroforestry systemsconferencesThe eastern part of Kutai Regency (lowland Kutai) in East Kalimantan, Indonesia is susceptible to large-scale wildfires during severe droughts related to strong El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events as shown by the 1982-83 and 1997-98 fires. Since the 1982-83 forest fires, many trials have been conducted to rehabilitate the burned forests. However, the 1998 fires burned those rehabilitated forests in lowland Kutai. It is expected that severe droughts related to strong ENSO events and subsequent wildfires will occur again in the near future. Without effective fire prevention, the rehabilitated areas will be burned again and the rehabilitation process will never have enough time to reach completion. To rehabilitate burned forests and grasslands, it is important that community-based initiatives be undertaken to reduce potential fire sources and to enhance fire management activities. Clear benefits to the local community should be introduced and announced to the local people before and during forest rehabilitation. In this context, agroforestry systems will be keys to rehabilitate the degraded forest lands in such a fire prone region. The possibilities and constraints of forest rehabilitation through agroforestry in lowland Kutai are discussed based on the lessons learnt from the past initiatives conducted in the region.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1252Bunvong Thaiutsa, Ladawan Puangchit, Don Koo Lee, Sang Won Ahn (eds.) Roles of agroforestry in restoration of degraded forest ecosystem: proceedings of the International Workshop, 6-8 August 2003, Chiangmai, Thailand.CNDisharmony in the heart of Borneo: a closer look at forestry conflicts in the tropicsYasmi, YCuvillier VerlagGottingen, Germany2003forest managementconflictconferencesConflict has always been part of human life. For that reason, conflict is often viewed as a normal and unavoidable feature, including in the forestry sector, regardless of the cultural, spatial and temporal setting. Due to this problem, it is imperative to understand the broader picture of forestry conflicts. This understanding is critical in order to help find ways and mechanisms to manage the occurence of conflicts in the forestry sector and to develop informed policy measures. This study looked closely at underlying causes of conflict between local people and other stakeholder groups in East Kalimantan Indonesia. Results show that conflicts were triggered by many factors not only limited to interest. Various levels or intensity of conflict were discussed. In contrast to the prevailing understanding in theory and practice, which sees conflicts over forest management mainly as the result of competing interests, this study concludes that interests do not necessarily play a major role as causes of conflicts. The behaviour of actors, as well as emotions and perceptions can play a much more important role.Chapteren3-89873-738-1CIFOR Head Quarter619Birner, R., Nurrochmat, D., Rosyadi, S. (eds.) Sustainable development: socio-economic and environmental problems focused on Indonesian cases. Proceedings of the International Seminar held on April 20th, 2002, Gottingen, GermanyCNMunicipios e gestao florestal na Amazonia: introducao e marco teoricoToni, F.Kaimowitz, DA.S. EditoresNatal2003decentralizationhistoryinstitutionslawforest policyland uselocal governmentIn this chapter, the authors discuss the history of decentralization in Brazil, analyze the institutional and legal characteristics of the Brazilian political system concerning decentralization and build a theoretical framework for the case studies. Brazil has experienced cycles of centralization and decentralization since its independency, in 1822. The 1988 constitution sparked a strong and sustained cycle of decentralization. The country has a strong federal system, in which municipalities get a fair share of federal taxes and already are able to control education and health policies and services. Decentralization in the forest and environment sectors still lag behind. Municipal governments do not have interest in controlling and taxing the forest sector for political reasons and due to the very nature of the fiscal federalism. Yet, in spite of the slow advances and lack of a formal decentralization program, the Brazilian Constitution and laws grant state and municipal governments enough power to take action in these sectors. Municipalities can restrict land use and create protected areas in their territories. However, local governments in Amazonia do not frequently use this and other prerogatives.ChapterptCIFOR Head Quarter1248Toni, F., Kaimowitz, D. Municipios e gestao florestal na AmazoniaBRLa commercialisation de Dacryodes edulis dans la zone forestière humide du CamerounAwono, A.Ndoye, O.Schreckenberg, KPresses Universitaires d'AfriqueYaounde, Cameroon2002Dacryodes edulisfruitsmarketingfarmersnon-timber forest productsconferencesThis paper sheds light on the marketing of Dacryodes edulis in the humid forest zone of Cameroon. The results of the study show that the marketing margins are related to the type of fruits, its state (quality), the selling place and the market supply, which also depend on the production period. The value of Dacryodes sold in 1999 in 9 markets in the humid forest zone of Cameroon is 1049 million CFA Francs for a volume of 2324 tons. In some of the markets, the weekly marketing margins obtained by traders is more than two times greater than the SMIG (minimum wage) that prevails in Cameroon. The results also show that farmers receive 75 percent of the price paid by consumers. This percentage should not make us believe that farmers cannot get more from the production and marketing of Dacryodes edulis. For this to happen, it is imperative that farmers organise themselves into producer groups, which will allow them not only to get access into the market in a less costly way, using economies of scale but also to gather strategic information, which could permit them identify more profitable markets.ChapterfrCIFOR Head Quarter1241Kengue, J., Kapseu, C., Kayem, G.J. (eds.) Third international workshop on the improvement of safou and other non-conventional oil crops. Yaounde, Cameroon, 3-5 October 2000.CMBiophysical characterisation of Dacryodes edulis fruits from three markets in CameroonAtangana, A.R.Asaah, E.Tchoundjeu, Z.Awono, A.Schreckenberg, K.Leakey, R.R.BPresses Universitaires d'AfriqueYaounde, Cameroon2002Dacryodes edulisfruitsqualitypricesmarketsnon-timber forest productsconferencesStudies were done in order to assess variation in fruit size and weight, nut size and weight and determinate relationships between these characteristics and price using 149 samples of Dacryodes edulis fruits from three markets at the peak of season in Cameroon. 50 samples per market in two markets (Mfoundi market [Yaonde] and Makenene centre market) and 49 samples in Makenene East market were bought randomly from traders. The measurement of 10 characteristics of 24 fruits per sample identified significant variation in fruit size and weight and nut weight in each market. Fruit price was found to vary with flesh mass, fruit mass and fruit size in retailers markets while wholsalers don't take into account fruit variability. In contrast, pulp price per kg was negatively correlated with flesh weight in wholesalers' markets. The most frequent skin colour was "georgetown lime" (29A7 in the Methuen colour code) and the most frequent flesh colour was violet (18D6 in the Methuen colour code). From this study, Dacryodes edulis fruit ideotype fetching highest price in the retailers markets is characterized by length, flesh and fruit mass and white skin colour.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1242Kengue, J., Kapseu, C., Kayem, G.J. (eds.) Third international workshop on the improvement of safou and other non-conventional oil crops. Yaounde, Cameroon, 3-5 October 2000.CMDomestication dans les cacaoyères de la zone de forêt humide du Sud-Cameroun: caractéristiques et préférences des cacaoculteurs pratiquant l’arboriculture de Dacryodes edulisSanwa, D.J.Tchatat, M.Adesina, A.A.Weise, S.F.Nkongmeneck, A.B.Ndoye, O.Endamana, DPresses Universitaires d'AfriqueYaounde, Cameroon2002Dacryodes edulisfruit treesagroforestrycocoafarmersselectivityconferencesThe aim of this paper is to determine the characteristics and preferences of cocoa farmers in the humid forest zone of Cameroon who are actively diversifying their cocoa agroforests by planting Dacryodes edulis. A survey conducted amongst 300 farmers revealed that about 80 percent of them grow Dacryodes edulis in cocoa agroforests. More than half of them have completed primary school, half belong to farmer associations and only 10 percent have contact with extension services. This demonstrates the independent initiative of farmers to grow Dacryodes edulis and underlines the importance of capturing their knowledge and experience in integrating this fruit tree into cocoa agroforests. The number of cocoa agroforests per farmer decreases as one moves from a more forested area to one where pressure on land is greater. Dacryodes edulis is frequently associated with other planted fruit trees. However, in areas of higher land pressure it is often also planted together with other tree species. Overall, 47 percent of farmers plant at least 4 fruit trees and 38 percent at least 4 other tree species in their cocoa agroforests besides Dacryodes edulis. The interest in Dacryodes edulis does not prevent farmers from diversifying their tree stock within the cocoa agroforests. Dacryodes edulis complements other trees in addressing the need of farmers.ChapterfrCIFOR Head Quarter1244Kengue, J., Kapseu, C., Kayem, G.J. (eds.) Third international workshop on the improvement of safou and other non-conventional oil crops. Yaounde, Cameroon, 3-5 October 2000.CMMonitoring permanent sample plots (PSPs) after conventional and reduced-impact logging in the Bulungan research forest, East Kalimantan, IndonesiaPriyadi, H.Kartawinata, KSheil, D.Sist, PForestry Department Peninsular MalaysiaKuala Lumpur, Malaysia2002logging effectsreductiondamagemonitoringtropical forestsDipterocarpaceaeconferencesTwenty four permanents sample plots (PSPs), of one ha each have been randomly set up to be a long term monitoring in the hill mixed dipterocarps forest in the Bulungan Research Forest, East Kalimantan. All trees (DBH=20cm) were measured and indentified. In this study area, reduced-impact logging (RIL) trial has been carried out in the compartment of operational scale (over 100 ha). The objective of the study was to observe how far RIL can reduce logging damage compared with conventional logging which was done by state-owned company, PT Inhutani II and in line with those activity also to do monitoring PSPs. The results confirmed with other published research that RIL significantly reduced damage to residual stand. However, under high felling intensity (>8 trees/ha) the proportion of injured and dead trees in RIL were similar to those recorded in the conventional logging. Growth measurement in those PSPs after two years were also reported. Canopy openness and skid trail length after logging were measured.Chapteren983-9269-17-8CIFOR Head Quarter1234Mohamad Ismail, Shaharudin bin, Thai, S. K., Yap, Y.H., Deris, Othman bin, Korsgaard, S. Proceedings of the Malaysia-ITTO International Workshop on Growth and Yield of Managed Tropical Forests, 25th –29th June, 2002, Kuala LumpurIDAdaptive collaborative management: a value-adding approach to CBFM in the PhilippinesHartanto, H.Lorenzo, M.C.B.Valmores, C.Burton, L.Arda-Minas, LCIFOR and Department of Environmental and Natural Resources (DENR)Bogor, Indonesia2002collaborationcommunity involvementcommunity forestryforest managementvalue addedmethodologyconferencesCIFOR conducted a research on Adaptive Collaborative Management (ACM) in two Community Based Forest Management (CBFM) sites in the Philippines for 3 years. This paper describes how different ACM processes were applied at the site level to help the community and local stakeholders in managing their CBFM in a collaborative and adaptive way. As the result of these processes, several changes were noted. These include, among others, increased trust, attitude and awareness among the PO members and different stakeholders, increased skills of PO members, increased communication and information flow within and between stakeholder groups, increased collective action within PO members and across different stakeholders in CBFM implementation, improved feedback mechanisms from local forest managers to decision makers, increased income for PO members, and improved forest resource use and management. This paper concludes by describing how ACM provides adds-on value to the existing CBFM program and putting forward several recommendations to improve CBFM implementation.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1233Hartanto, H., Evangelista, R. (eds.) Proceedings of a National Workshop on Building Partnerships, Strengthening Capacities and Developing Forest Resource thru Community Based Forest Management, Angeles City, August 6-7, 2002PHDevelopment of multistakeholder scenarios of secondary forest management: a multiagent system simulation approachPurnomo, H.Priyadi, H.Yasmi, Y.Yuliani, L.Prabhu, RFaculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University and Kansai Environmental Engineering CentreYogyakarta, Indonesia2002secondary forestsdata collectionsimulation modelsgrowthyieldscarboncommunitiesprivate sectorexpert systemsconferencesThe state owned company, PT. Inhutani II Sub Unit Malinau, has managed the lowland dipterocarps forest in Malinau District, East Kalimantan for over 10 years. They established permanent sample plots (PSP) for measuring the growth and the yield in their area. However, current regulations do not give the company a sufficient space to use the PSP data for managing the area, nor a systematic way to involve the communities in the management of the forest. This research was aimed to seek scenarios of sustainable secondary forest management. The scenarios were developed through simulation of social and biophysical components in the area using Multi-Agent System (MAS). MAS is a branch of artificial intelligent for creating artificial society used for social simulation. This paper presents scenarios' development process and scenarios of collaborative management of the forest. The results reveal that Multi-Agent System (MAS) is a powerful tool in simulating and in developing scenarios of sustainable dipterocarps forest management. the sustainability was measured by indicators of forest cover and standing stock, carbon stock, communities incomes, the company revenue and taxes paid to the local and center governments. It was also found that collaboration between PT. Inhutani II and the communitie appeared to be the most suitable alternative for sustainable secondary dipterocarps forest management.Chapteren979-3178-00-0CIFOR Head Quarter1224Sabarnurdin, M.A., Hardiwinoto, S., Rimbawanto, A., Okimori, Y. (eds.) Proceedings of the Seminar on Dipterocarp Reforestation to Restore Environment Through Carbon Sequestration, Yogyakarta, 26-27 September 2001PHThe political ecology of tropical forests in Southeast Asia: historical roots of modern problemsde Jong, W.Tuk-Po, L.Ken-ichi, AKyoto University PressKyoto2003tropical forestsnatural resourcesusesenvironmental impactpoliticssocioeconomicshistoryA simplistic explanation of why tropical forests degrade or disappear all together is, because loggers take out too many trees, companies convert forest for plantations, and small farmers slash forest to make agricultural fields. Political ecology is a scientific inter-discipline that tries to identify the political dimension of forest resource appropriation, contestation over forest benefits, and the role of power and discourse in the processes of unsustainable use and resulting forest degradation. This chapter summarizes ten chapters in the volume in which it is published. Several of chapters demonstrate that modern struggles over forests have their roots in colonial periods. Colonial powers used force, but also the argument that deforestation negatively affected the local climate, to expulse forest farmers from timber rich forest lands. Often control of the trade of lucrative forest products like rattan was decided by force. In these struggles, colonial powers used force against local Sultans, local Sultans used force against forest dwellers, and powerful forest dweller groups used force against weaker groups. ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1217de Jong, W., Tuk-Po, L., Ken-ichi, A. (eds.) The political ecology of tropical forests in Southeast Asia: historical perspectivesPHThe political ecology of forest products in Indonesia: a history of changing adversariesde Jong, W.Belcher, B.Rohadi, D.Mustikasari, R.Levang, PKyoto University PressKyoto2003forest productstradehistoryThis paper look at forest products (FP) procurement and trade in Indonesia in a historical perspective, and critically investigate the nature of the actions of the players involved in these economic activities. It identifies the different actions of the various participants that can be qualified as rent-seeking, and proposes a classification of these actions in different categories. Using these different types of rent seeking allows the identification of changes in strategies used by different actors in order to increase their benefits from FP trade. Different actors had a different set of opportunities to use some actions within this set of rent-seeking actions, depending on the special circumstance of time and place in which each of the actors operates. There are some general trends in rent seeking related to FP trade. Those who had the power to do so used coersion to benefit from FP trade throughout the history of this trade in Indonesia. Collusion between traders, government officials made use of inappropriate implementation of the rule of law from central government, timber and oil palm companies claim forest territories because there is no consent on property rights have been a constant practices throughout history and are still being used today but maybe less so or more difficult during the reformasi era.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1218de Jong, W., Tuk-Po, L., Ken-ichi, A. (eds.) The political ecology of tropical forests in Southeast Asia: historical perspectivesIDDe facto decentralization and community conflicts in East Kalimantan, Indonesia: explanations from local history and implications for community forestryRhee, SKyoto University PressKyoto2003decentralizationconflictcommunity forestryhistoryChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1391de Jong, W., Tuk-Po, L., Ken-ichi, A.(eds.) The political ecology of tropical forests in Southeast Asia: historical perspectivesIDFirst experiences with adaptive co-management in Para, Brazilian AmazonPokorny, B.Cayres, G.Nunes, W.Segebart, D.Drude, RCIFOR and Embrapa Amazonia OrientalBelem, Brazil2002conferencesforest managementcommunity forestryadaptationcollaborationcriteriaindicatorsAdaptive Co-Management (ACM) is an integrative approach for implementing sustainable forest management. An ACM team started working on ACM in Para State in year 2000. Its pilot activities in Para were carried out in three sites, each representing different realities of communities established in the Eastern Amazon region. The research focused on the concept of Collaborative Diagnostic Studies (CDS) as an opportunity to replace extenally-driven background studies, which are important for documentation and impact monitoring, with a collaborative evaluation of an expert-defined set of criteria and indicators for assessing sustainability (C&I). The defined set of C&I was structured in three categories: collaboration, adaptive management of natural resources and impacts/conditions. A variety of participatory methods were tested, described and evaluated in relation to their contribution to ACM. Pilot studies showed that CDS are not suitable as a substitute for background studies. Special efforts have to be undertaken so as to diminish the danger of external dominance and to ensure the participation of local actors. The pilot studies also confirmed the need for a systematic and well structured documentation of the complex and dynamic processes related to ACM. Due to the promising results obtained so far, it is recommended to focus ACM research in Brazil on work shared with local researcher teams and existing community projects.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1209Sabogal, C., Macedo Silva, J.N. (eds.) Manejo integrado de florestas umidas neotropicais por industrias e comunidades: aplicando resultados de pesquisa, envolvendo atores e definindo politicas publicas: Simposio Internacional da IUFRO, Belem PA, Brazil, 4-7 Decembre, 2000.BRCash for tropical peat: land use change and forestry projects for climate change mitigationMacDicken, KAgency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT) and Indonesian Peat Association (IPA)Jakarta, Indonesia2002peatlandsKyoto Protocolcarbongreenhouse gasesclimatic changeprojectsWhile tropical peat swamps can present very large stocks, the threat of greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere is much lower. Given the current agreement for activities to be conducted through the Clean Development Mechanism (afforestation and reforestation only), it seems there is little opportunity for peat swamp project because they are unlikely to effectivelly compete with projects on terra firma. There is still a chance that forest conservation could be included as a project alternative in the future commitment periods. It is important that scientists working on tropical peat swamps seek to influence policy makers to include forest conservation in the Kyoto Protocol if peat swamps are to be conserved through climate change mitigation mechanisms.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1117Rieley, J.O., Page, S.E. (eds.) Peatlands for people: natural resource functions and sustainable management: proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peatlands, held in Jakarta, Indonesia on 22-23 August 2001.BRFire use, peatland transformation and local livelihoods: a case of positive reinforcementChokkalingam, U.Tacconi, L.Ruchiat, YAgency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT) and Indonesian Peat Association (IPA)Jakarta, Indonesia2002firepeatlandsforestsfishery resourcesrural welfareconferencesA case study from the central extensive peatland sections of the Middle Mahakam Area, East Kalimantan, is used to depic how local use of fire for agriculture extraction activities could be a major factor driving peatland transformation. Large-scale fires that occured in the area in 1982/83 and 1997/98, have resulted in transformation of some of the forested peatlands to open grass and water patches. Many of these degraded areas continue to be subject to annual, largerly uncontrolled, burning in the dry season for fish extraction. Conversion of the forested lanscape to open grass and water areas, and ultimately to lakes with repeated burning may actually enhance fishing conditions and benefit local communities, at least in the short run. The potential long-term impacts of repeated fires and landscape transformation on the vegetation, hydrological conditions, fisheries, and local livelihoods need further investigation. The scope for harmonisation of potentially divergent local interest and activities, and non-local biodiversity conservation and climate stabilisation interest in this tropical peatland ecosystem are discussed.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1118Rieley, J.O., Page, S.E. (eds.) Peatlands for people: natural resources functions and sustainable management. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peatlands, held in Jakarta, Indonesia on 22nd and 23rd August 2001BRHarum madu dan dupa kemenyan di Jawa TengahGoloubinoff, MYayasan Obor IndonesiaJakarta, Indonesia2002benzoinuseshistorynon-timber forest productsIn North Sumatra, Batak farmers tap benzoin resin from several species of Styrax. Most of the production is sent to Central Java where it is used for incense and traditional cigarettes manufacture. Consummation of klembak menyan, a traditional cigarette has decreased because of competition of kretek industry. Incense factories are located in the South. They manufacture blocks of incense made of benzoin mixed with other ingredients like damar. Javanese people still burn often benzoin during traditional ceremonies. Incense is actually main end use of the resin either on domestic or international market. Some benzoin is exported to India and Arabic countries via Singapore. Pharmacy and perfume industries in Europe also use small quantities of benzoin.ChapteridCIFOR Head Quarter1119Guillot, C. (comp.) Lobu tua: sejarah awal barusIDPengolahan kemenyan di dataran tinggi Batak: keadaan sekarangKatz, EYayasan Obor IndonesiaJakarta, Indonesia2002benzoinnon-timber forest productsChapteridCIFOR Head Quarter1120Guillot, C. Lobu tua: sejarah awal barusIDNot by bread alone... forests and rural livelihoods in Sub-Saharan AfricaKaimowitz, DEuropean Forest InstituteJoensuu, Finland2003forest policyforest productsforest resourcesrural welfarelow income groupspovertyconferencesTens of millions of rural households in Sub-Saharan Africa rely heavily on forest products for subsistence and to supplement their cash incomes. The poorest households, women and children generally rely on them most. Forests are indirectly linked to rural livelihoods through their role in governance, the macroeconomy and climate change. Failure to develop legitimate government structures and invest in social services in forested region has contributed to violent conflict, illegal activities and weakening of the rule of law. That discourages investment and lowers economic growth. In certain Central and West African nations, commercial forestry provides a large share of the foreign exchange. From the environmental point of view, forests serve as carbon sinks, slowing down global warming and reducing its negative effects on small-scale agriculture.This paper first discusses the contribution of forest resources to rural livelihoods and then examines some related threats and opportunities. Finally it makes policy recommendations.Chapteren952-9844-96-4CIFOR Head Quarter1196Oksanen, T, Pajari, B., Tuomasjukka, T. (eds.) Forests in poverty reduction strategies: capturing the potentialIDCarbon stocks of fast growing tree species and baselines after forest fire in east Kalimantan, IndonesiaDiana, R.Hadriyanto, D.Hiratsuka, M.Toma, T.Morikawa, YForestry Research InstituteTaipei, Taiwan2002clean development mechanismcarbon sequestrationbiomassdegraded landsecondary forestsforest plantationsconferencesIn terms of sink activities in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) there is little information about carbon accumulation. This paper deals with case studies in natural young secondary forests and man made forests in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. East Kalimantan has high possibility of CDM activity, because of degraded lands extend widely in 1998. The annual carbon accumulation of pioneer secondary forest in Bukit Soeharto Educational Forest (BSEF) ranged from 1.3 to 2.9 t C/ha/yr in 2000. However, the rate decreased in 2001 except for Macaranga gigantea dominated stands. These figures were higher than those of regenerated vegetation in degraded land with herbs, shrubs and Imperata cylindrica grassland. On the other hand, annual carbon accumulation of Acacia mangium, eucalyptus pelitta and Gmelia arborea were 5.9-9.9, 7.1-7.2, and 8.3-12.3 t C/ha/yr respectively. Highly degraded vegetations would be the target site for CDM projects. Naturally regenerated forests are not suitable for CDM project because of their high baseline.Chapteren579-01-2475-XCIFOR Head Quarter1192Kuo-chuan Lin, Jiun-cheng Lin, Hsing-yin Huang (eds.) Proceedings of International Symposium on Forest Carbon Sequestration and Monitoring, November 11-15, 2002 Taipei, Taiwan.IDCarbon sequestration of man-made forests: sequestration estimate and its bearings on CDMMorikawa, Y.Ohta, S.Hiratsuka, M.Toma, TForestry Research InstituteTaipei, Taiwan2002clean development mechanismcarbon sequestrationdegraded landrehabilitationforest plantationsconferencesThis study estimates that sequestrated carbon by industrial tree plantations is at about 10 tC/ha/yr in good sites. The carbon accumulated by rehabilitation forests is not always less than that of industrial plantations. Selecting the suitable pecies could be one of the essential factors to succed and preserving forests. Rehabilitation forests in Lombok and Benakat in South Sumatra sites are regarded as the successful cases. While annual carbon accumulation by naturally regenerated vegetation at baselines in Lombok site amounts to 2.9-3.2 tC/ha/yr, the net carbon accumulation of this site ranges from 2.9 to 5.7 tC/ha/yr. Establishing forests has markedly increased the carbon accumulation in this area. The carbon accumulation at baseline at Benakat site is 1.6-2.8 tC/ha/yr. It is almost the same as that of Lombok site. The above ground carbon dry weight of 20-year-old S. macrophylla planted for rehabilitation purposes is 6.6 tC/ha/yr. These results suggest that, in short rotation, the carbon accumulation of rehabilitation forests is not markedly different from that of industrial plantations. Conserving the rehabilitation forests for a long time would therefore, be one of the most rational practices for storing carbon on degraded lands sustainably.Chapteren579-01-2475-XCIFOR Head Quarter1193Kuo-chuan Lin, Jiun-cheng Lin, Hsing-yin Huang (eds.) Proceedings of International Symposium on Forest Carbon Sequestration and Monitoring, November 11-15, 2002 Taipei, Taiwan.IDL’exploitation méconnue d’une ressource connue: la collecte des larves comestibles de charançons dans les palmiers raphias au sud CamerounDounias, EPeeters-SELAFParis2003non-timber forest productsfoodsRhynchophorusCurculionidaeAs far as entomophagy is concerned, the first resource that comes to mind concerning the Congo Basin area is the improperly called ‘white worm of palm trees’. This weevil larva (Rhynchophorus phoenicis F., Curculionidae) is commonly known, and if we except local and specific food prohibitions, it is widely appreciated as food throughout Central Africa. This resource is frequently mentioned in the literature dealing with food consumption in this region, with precise information about its nutritional value. Nevertheless, there exists no detailed description of gathering processes. Data are elusive concerning the economic value of this NTFP, which is usually perceived as a ‘delicacy’ rather than as a resource of considerable value.ChapterfrCIFOR Head Quarter999Motte-Florac, E., Thomas, J.M.C. (eds.) Les insectes dans la tradition oraleCMContras and comandantes: armed movements and forest conservation in Nicaragua's Bosawas biosphere reserveKaimowitz, D.Faune, AFood Products PressBinghamton, NY2003forest conservationSandinistascattle farmingconflictwarloggingminingprotected areasThis article has been co-published simultaneously in the Journal of Sustainable Forestry, vol.16, no. 3/4, 2003.In the 1980s, Nicaragua's Sandinista government faced armed mestizo and indigenous insurgencies in much of the nation's central and eastern region. After the Sandinistas lost the 1990 elections, the in-coming government signed peace agreements with the insurgents and facilitated their return to civilian life. With the war over, the Nicaraguan army greatly reduced its troop strength, leaving tens of thousands of people unemployed. Within a few years, however, many former insurgents and soldiers took up arms again for multiple and complex reasons. This paper examines how three groups that rearmed influenced forest conservation in the buffer zone of Nicaragua's Bosawas biosphere reserve between 1991 and 1999. The three groups were the Mestizo Northerm Front 3-80 (FN 3-80) and the Andres Castro United Forces (FUAC), and the Miskito YATAMA movement. The presence of these armed groups impeded the government from taking coercive action to remove farmers from the reserve's nucleus. It also limited the advance of cattle ranching. At times, the groups favored logging, at times they did not. The armed conflicts have tended to keep out prudent foreign investors and encourage the presence of smaller companies willing to take greater risks.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1191Price, S.V. (ed.) War and tropical forests: conservation in areas of armed conflictNIWho cares about forests?Sayer, J.AATSE Crawford FundParkville, Victoria, Australia2002forest managementchangeresearch policyCIFORconferencesChapteren1-875618-72-4CIFOR Head Quarter1186Brown, A.G. (ed.) Pathways to sustainable forest management. Proceedings of the Second Hermon Slade International Workshop, Ubud, Bali, 5-8 June, 2001NICodes of practice and reduced impact logging in tropical forests: an overviewApplegate, GATSE Crawford FundParkville, Victoria, Australia2002code of practicelogging effectstropical forestscostsconferencesThis paper highlights how early experience gained in north Queensland rainforests provided input to the development of Pacific island codes and the code of conduct for logging of indigenous forests in selected South Pacific countries in the mid-1990s. In a number of these countries, the development of codes of practice has been undertaken in parallel with the preparation of reduced impact guidelines and improved silvicultural practices. The work in the Pacific has recently been extended to include Asia with the publishing of the code of practice for forest harvesting in Asia-Pacific developed for the Asia Pacific Forestry Commission in 1999. A number of countries in this region are now developing their own national codes based on the Asia-Pacific code. Impediments to adoption of codes of practice are highlighted, along with some of the issues relating to costs as an impediment. Some of the research initiatives are aimed at analysing who pays the costs, who should pay and who benefits in the short and long term from improved timber harvesting practices.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1187Brown, A.G. (ed.) Pathways to sustainable forest management. Proceedings of the Second Hermon Slade International Workshop, Ubud, Bali, 5-8 June, 2001NIProperty rights and participatory forest management: an overviewMoeliono, MATSE Crawford FundParkville, Victoria, Australia2002forest managementcommunity involvementproperty rightsright of accesscommunity forestryparticipationconferencesThis paper is an overview of participatory forest management in relation with property rights issue. It highlights the difficulty in defining property rights. Although the issues presented are applicable throughout tropical Asia, albeit less so in the Pacific, this paper is based primarily on the author's experience in Indonesia, and almost all of examples are from indonesia. This paper discuss the diversity and changing nature of property rights and continues with a discussion on the issue of communities demanding the rights and possible responses of the government. At the end it presents a short review on participation of local communities in forest management.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1188Brown, A.G. (ed.) Pathways to sustainable forest management. Proceedings of the Second Hermon Slade International Workshop, Ubud, Bali, 5-8 June, 2001IDDecentralisation and forests resources in Indonesia: removing institutional constraints and redesigning policies for better futureDjogo, A.P.YATSE Crawford FundParkville, Victoria, Australia2002forest resourcesforest managementdecentralizationforest policyinstitutionsconferencesThe political transformation in Indonesia, followed by administrative decentralisation through the provision of regional autonomy, has had catastrophic consequences. The decentralisation of forest resource governance and management has engendered a parallel decentralisation of moral hazards such as opportunistic behaviour, abuse of power and uncontrolled markets. Forestry sector policies neither facilitate nor support community-based forest resource management, nor forest conservation and restoration. This paper analyses the current situation in forest resource exploitation from institutional perspectives. The analysis is based on case studies from two sites in Indonesia and consultation with stakeholders in various hierarchies. It identifies key points that institutions should observe in the decentralisation process to secure better performance or outcomes in forest resource management. In addition to removing institutional constraints, it is argued that policies need to be redesigned. This paper concludes with recommendations to remove institutional constraints and to redesigning policies.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1185Brown, A.G. (ed.) Pathways to sustainable forest management. Proceedings of the Second Hermon Slade International Workshop, Ubud, Bali, 5-8 June, 2001IDGeneral description of the Bulungan Research ProjectMachfudhCIFORBogor, Indonesia2002research projectsnatural resourcessocioeconomicscommunitieslocal governmentdevelopment plansThis chapter presents the introduction of the natural resources of the study area of the Bulungan Research Project. It covers information on topography, climate, hydrology, geology, soils, forest types, and socio-economic conditions of local people as well as the economic development plan of the local government in the area. Coloured maps of the research locations and statistical data are included.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1176CIFOR ITTO project PD 12/97 Rev.1 (F): forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model forest: technical report phase 1, 1997-2001IDResearch on logging: comparison of reduced-impact logging and conventional logging techniquesKartawinata, K.Dwiprabowo, H.Sist, PCIFOR and ITTOBogor, Indonesia2002logging effectsreductiondamageplant residuessoilThis chapter provides a brief overview of the reduced impact logging (RIL) as one of the main objectives of the first phase of the Bulungan research project. This activity was conducted in response to a question whether timber harvesting can be compatible with other forest services, values and functions. The main objective of RIL is to reduce soil disturbance, damage to residual trees and maintain future production of timber.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1177CIFOR ITTO project PD 12/97 Rev.1 (F): forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model forest: technical report phase 1, 1997-2001IDResearch on logging: reduced-impact logging in Indonesian Borneo: some results confirming the need for new silvicultural prescriptionsSist, P.Sheil, D.Kartawinata, K.Priyadi, HCIFOR and ITTOBogor, Indonesia2002selective fellingDipterocarpaceaelogging effectsdamagesilvicultural systemsassessmentReduced-impact logging (RIL) and conventional techniques (CNV) were compared in a mixed dipterocarp hill forest in Malinau, East Kalimantan. Damage was evaluated using pre- and post-harvesting assessments in 24 one-hectare sample plots. RIL techniques nearly halved the number of trees destroyed (36 vs. 60 trees/ha). RIL's main benefit was in the reduction of skidding damage (9.5% of the original tree population in RIL vs. 25% in CNV). Before logging, mean canopy openness in CNV (three plots only) and RIL (9 plots) was similar (3.6 and 3.1%) and not significantly different. After logging, the mean canopy openness was significantly higher in CNV with 19.2% than in RIL 13.3%. At a larger scale, the area of skidtrail per unit timber volume extracted was halved in the RIL compartment (15 m2 vs. 27 m2 m-3 for CNV). However, under high felling intensities (>8 trees/ha), both stand damage and canopy disturbance in RIL approached those recorded in CNV. Over this eight tree-felling threshold the effectiveness of RIL in reducing tree damage is limited. In mixed dipterocarp forest where harvestable timber density generally exceeds 10 trees/ha, a minimum diameter-felling limit is insufficient to keep extraction rates below 8 trees/ha. Based on these new results and previous studies in Borneo, we suggest three new rules: (1) to keep a minimum distance between stumps of ca. 40 m, (2) to ensure only single tree gaps using directional felling, (3) to harvest only stems with 60-100 cm dbh. Foresters, policy makers and certifiers should consider these as criteria for sustainable forest management. ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1178CIFOR ITTO project PD 12/97 Rev.1 (F): forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model forest: technical report phase 1, 1997-2001IDPeople's dependencies on forestsLevang, PCIFOR and ITTOBogor, Indonesia2002forest resourcesforest productssocial welfarelivelihoodsethnic groupscommunity forestryeconomic dependenceethnographyanthropologyConsidering the role and importance of the forest to local people, what first strikes any visitor to the Bulungan research forest is the strong contradiction between talk and action. On one hand side the contribution of the forest to local people's livelihoods is widely acknowledged, on the other hand side forest people are willing to strike any deal with concessionaires as long as it proves lucrative. The surveys taken out in a dozen of villages and hamlets along the Malinau and Tubu rivers show that dependency on forest products for subsistence needs is still very high especially in the most remote settlements. Though nowadays the main staple is rice complemented with cassava, wild sago is still considered as a safety net in case of bad harvests. Most of the protein and fat intake are provided from hunting. However, among the numerous forest products available, only very few like eaglewood are cash-earning. Forest people depend more on available (and accessible) markets and on traders than on the bare availability of forest products. Nowadays, new opportunities have emerged for local communities. Collecting compensations and fees from concessionaires has proved to be a lucrative source of income. Especially in the less remote areas, people are facing new needs: education and health costs, electronic goods, leisure activities. Forest people want to become part of the modern world. Their increasing dependence on cash explains why they are ready to give away their forest.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1180CIFOR ITTO project PD 12/97 Rev.1 (F): forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model forest: technical report phase 1, 1997-2001IDNegotiating more than boundaries: conflict, power, and agreement building in the demarcation of village borders in MalinauAnau, N.Iwan, R.van Heist, M.Limberg, G.Sudana, I.M.Wollenberg, ECIFOR and ITTOBogor, Indonesia2002community forestryforest resourcesconflictdecision makingmappingparticipationCIFOR facilitated 27 communities in the Upper Malinau watershed to develop agreements about their village boundaries and map them through participatory methods. Decentralization reforms created new values of forest resources and uncertainties that increased conflict over local resources. We report on the nature of these conflicts, the stability of agreements and the factors affecting how agreements were reached.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/itto-report-chapter5-8.pdfChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1181CIFOR ITTO project PD 12/97 Rev.1 (F): forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model forest: technical report phase 1, 1997-2001IDResearch in the Bulungan model forest: the management of a large, multistakeholder forestStapleton, P.Sheil, D.Wollenberg, E.Kartawinata, K.Levang, P.MachfudhCIFOR and ITTOBogor, Indonesia2002research projectsforest managementbiodiversityloggingCIFORITTOCIFOR's research in the Bulungan Model Forest in Bulungan, East Kalimanatan took the form of a systematic investigation into ways of achieving forest sustainability in a large forest landscape with diverse, rapidly changing and often conflicting land-use demands. The integrated approach to research was applied to research on reduced impact logging, biodiversity of the area by using multidisciplinary methods across the landscape, forest people's dependency on forest products particularly on economic dependencies, and coordination and agreement in boundary negotiation among local communities, government and the private sectors. A brief report on the results of these researches is presented in this chapter.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1182CIFOR ITTO project PD 12/97 Rev.1 (F): forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model forest: technical report phase 1, 1997-2001IDIntroductionKartawinata, K.Sheil, D.Wollenberg, E.Levang, P.MachfudhCIFOR and ITTOBogor, Indonesia2002researchloggingbiodiversitysocioeconomicsITTOFORDAIt is an introduction of CIFOR's research in Bulungan, Kalimantan with the Ministry of Forestry in Indonesia and ITTO. CIFOR's strategic research is focused on policy issues to enable more informed, productive, sustainable and equitable decisions about the management and use of forests. CIFOR works closely with ITTO and FORDA (the Forestry Research and Development Agency, Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia) as important strategic partners in the Bulungan model forest project phase 1, 1997-2001. The aim of the research is to carry out a systematic investigation of how to achieve forest sustainability for a 'large forest landscape' in the humid tropics, where diverse, rapidly changing and often conflicting land use demand exist. The specific objectives of the activities conducted with ITTO support are: 1) Assessment of the effect of reduced-impact logging (RIL) on biodiversity, conservation, ecology and socio-economics, 2) Assessment of rural development trends and future policy options including the effects of macro-level development activities on people dependent on the forest.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1173CIFOR ITTO project PD 12/97 Rev.1 (F): forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model forest: technical report phase 1, 1997-2001IDOverview of approaches and methodsKartawinata, K.Sheil, D.Wollenberg, E.Levang, P.Sist, PCIFOR and ITTOBogor, Indonesia2002research projectsITTOmethodologysilviculturebiologysocial sciencesforest managementThe CIFOR-ITTO project's general objective is to achieve long-term forest management for multiple uses, integrating social and silvicultural objectives in Malinau, Kalimantan, Indonesia. To achieve this objective there are complicated issues to be dealt with and requires integrated research that combined biological and socioeconomics aspects. The underlying issue is: what are the appropriate research methods and conceptual approaches to guide sustainability for a large forest landscape, where diverse, rapidly changing and often conflicting land use demand exist? This chapter provides a comprehensive coverage of the main issues and perspective of the basic assessment of existing conditions and trends. The approaches adobted in the implementation of the project on reduced impact logging (RIL) technique, biodiversity multidisciplinary landscape assessment (MLA), forest product dependency and adaptive co-management of forests are described.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1174CIFOR ITTO project PD 12/97 Rev.1 (F): forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model forest: technical report phase 1, 1997-2001IDResearch on logging: cost-benefit analysis of reduced-impact logging in a lowland Dipterocarp forest in Malinau, East KalimantanDwiprabowo, H.Grulois, S.Sist, P.Kartawinata, KCIFOR and ITTOBogor, Indonesia2002loggingtechniquescost benefit analysisconcessionsThis study is a part of the Reduced-Impact Logging (RIL) studies constituting a developmental phase within a long term research strategy in Bulungan research Forest, East Kalimantan. The sylviculture component of the project was to start logging experiments, focusing on the implementation of RIL technique by INHUTANI II in its concession in Malinau, East Kalimantan. Research on the assessment of the immediate and long-term impact of timber harvesting with conventional logging (CL) and RIL techniques in economical terms were carried out to promote the integration of RIL into the current logging techniques at the concession scale. The study was conducted in 1998-1999 on 244 ha block for CL and 138 ha for RIL. This paper mainly presents the immediate financial cost-benefit part of RIL study. Motion study was used to estimate productivity. Hourly productivity on felling and skidding of both techniques were calculated based on felling and skidding time cycles, and unit costs of production were assessed on hourly basis based on the machine cost and piece rate. Unit cost of pre-harvesting operations were assessed on block basis based upon time used by crew to carry out each activity, cost per day, and estimated production per block. Residues of logging were classified and measured on site when the activity was on. Rapid assessment on damage was made by measuring skid tracks caused by CL and RIL.The results showed that hourly productivity of felling and skidding in RIL was 28% and 30% higher than those of CL. Pre-harvesting cost of RIL 60% higher than that of CL. The overall cost of pre-harvesting, felling, skidding and training of RIL was 12% lower than that of CL. Overall residues occurred in the felling and landing site in proportion to respective felled bole volume in RIL was 12% lower that of CL. Proportion of skid tracks to extracted volume (in m2/m3) in RIL was 53% lower than that of CL.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1179CIFOR ITTO project PD 12/97 Rev.1 (F): forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model forest: technical report phase 1, 1997-2001IDThe role of forests in addressing global problems: what economic valuation methods won't tell usKaimowitz, DTropenbos InternationalWageningen, Netherlands2002forest economicsvaluationmethodologyconferencesEarly forest valuation studies let many people to believe these methods would produce results that convinced policymakers of the economic value of forests. More recent studies suggest the only environmental service that forests provide with high economic value is carbon sequestration. Thus one is forced to conclude that either traditional economic methods do not provide an appropriate way of valuing forests or that timber and carbon are the only forest products and services that are really valuable. This paper supports the former view. It notes that: 1) forests provide important safety nets to power people, 2) good forest governance can reduce violent conflict, and 3) forests contribute many environmental services that we still do not fully understand.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1168Verweij, P. Understanding and capturing the multiple values of tropical forests. Proceedings of international seminar on valuation and innovative financing mechanisms in support of conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests, The Hague, 20-21 March 2002.IDCommunity-based fire management, land tenure and conflict: insights from Sumatra, IndonesiaSuyanto, S.Applegate, G.Tacconi, LFAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificBangkok, Thailand2002forest firesforest managementfire controlcommunity forestrycommunitiesincomeCommunity-based fire management in parts of Indonesia can have both positive and negative impacts on the forest environment, and can lead to short-and long-term changes in income. This paper examines two examples from Lampung province in Southern Sumatra, Indonesia and in Sekincau, located in a national park. Based on knowledge of fire behaviour, communities often encourage fire to escape from adjacent areas and burn in previously illegally logged forest. This suggests that the community knows how to manage fire to meet specific objectives. In Menggala in the vast swamps of East Lampung province, the traditional communities use fire as a tool for burning organic matter to prepare the ground for "traditional swamp rice cultivation" (sonor) during extended dry periods. The fires have facilitated the regeneration and expansion of areas of melaleuca cajuputi, a fast-growing species that responds positively to disturbance. The regenerating forests are harvested for domestic consumption and supplementing income through the production and sale of charcoal, poles and sawn timber.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1169Peter Moore, David Ganz, Lay Cheng Tan, Thomas Enters and Patrick B. Durst (eds.) Communities in flames: proceedings of an international conference on community involvement in fire managementIDRegeneration, growth and sustainability of mahogany in Mexico's Yucatan forestsSnook, L.KSpringer-VerlagHeidelberg2003regenerationgrowthSwietenia macrophyllaforest treescommunity forestryfiresustainabilitynatural regenerationgrowthsilvicultureBig-leaf mahogany was studied on nine mixed-species stands that became established naturally between 2 and 75 years ago after catastrophic disturbances (hurricane blowdown, fire, or bulldozer clearing). More than 50% of adult big-leaf mahogany trees had survived a severe hurricane, leaving 2.8 seed trees ha-1. After fire, 29% to 100% of adult Mahogany trees survived, leaving an average of 1.4 seed trees ha 1. Thirty or more years later, postdisturbance mahogany trees were found at densities of 18 ha-1 after fire, as compared to 6 ha-1 after a hurricane. In mixed-species aggregations, mahogany trees grew at densities as great as 47 trees ha-1, accounting for up to 10% of the individuals and 27% of the basal area. A chronosequence of post fire stands to 15 to 75 years old revealed annual diameter increments ranging from more than 1 cm yr-1 between 15 and 30 years to 0.38 cm yr-1 between 45 and 75 years. Assuming constant growth, a big-leaf mahogany requires 122 years, on average, to reach the 55-cm minimum cutting diameter, although the fastest-growing trees may do so in 82 years. the current selective harvesting system, based on a 25-year cutting cycle, cannot be expected to ensure sustainable harvests of big-leaf mahogany because extraction exceeds growth and adequate regeneration conditions are not provided. Harvest rates should be reevaluated and efforts made to increase the harvest of other species and implement silvicultural treatments, or shifting agricultural systems should be integrated into the forest management regime to provide for the regeneration of this valuable shade-intolerant species.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/Regeneration.pdfChapteren0-387-98837-8CIFOR Head Quarter1157Lugo, A.E., Figueroa Colon, J.C., Alayon, M. (eds.) Big-leaf mahogany: genetics, ecology and managementMXBiodiversity research in MalinauSheil, DCIFOR and ITTOBogor, Indonesia2002biodiversitybiologyspeciesplantssocial sciencesrural communitiesanimalsThis chapter reports on a range of research conducted in CIFOR's research area in Malinau, East Kalimantan. A major emphasis of this work was to begin to document the biological wealth of this area. The main task had three major aspects: 1) finding out what occurs where, 2) assessing to whom it matters and in what way, and 3) identifying how to maintain this biota in the future. These studies combined both biological and social aspects, in order to determine not only what species and habitats were present but also how local communities used and view them. Background data also characterises sites and soils in the wider landscape. Surveys were undertaken in seven communities with the full participation of the villagers. The survey established 200 plots on a wide range of vegetations, and collected a wide range of specimens and related information. The survey area of these community territories is about 2,000 km2. Preliminary results of this research are presented. Additional research activities include assessments of fish, of reptiles and amphibians. Baseline data for mammals, birds and some invertebrates are also reported from the main logging studies. Local communities are found to be very dependent on the forest in many ways. Over two thousand plant taxa were recorded and over one thousand species were found to have significant direct values. Many animals are also indirectly recorded and found to have value to the communities. The area is found to be very infertile, and few options for sustainable agriculture or plantations are viable due to poor soils, and steep terrain. Various suggestions for improved forest and land-use management are presented. The region is found to be very rich in biodiversity. Several new species are reported.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1163CIFOR ITTO project PD 12/97 Rev.1 (F): forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model forest: technical report phase 1, 1997-2001MXForest fires in Indonesia: impacts and solutionsApplegate, G.Smith, R.Fox, J.J.Mitchell, A.Packham, D.Tapper, N.Baines, GResources for the Future, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS)Washington, DC2002forest firesfire effectsfire preventionpolicyinstitutionsThe severe fires that burned over 9.7 million ha of Indonesia in 1997/98 occurred in an El Niño year. Much of the impact of fires could have been avoided if appropriate fire management systems were in place and policies relating to fire and land use were appropriate to deal with the situation. The fires affected a large portion of the Indonesian population causing economic hardship and disruption to commerce and short and long term health problems. The smoke and haze generated by the fires also caused disruptions and economic loss to many neighbouring countries, causing diplomatic tensions. Much of the haze was generated by burning peat which not only generates 17 times more smoke than forests, but as a fossil fuel contributed over 700 tonnes of carbon dioxide in harmful emissions over an eight-month period. This chapter provides an assessment of the fire situation in 1997/98 and some technical and institutional policy recommendations to reduce the risk of fire prior to and during the next El Niño event currently predicted to occur in 2001.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1148Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Which way forward?: people, forests, and policymaking in IndonesiaIDTen propositions to explain Kalimantan's firesColfer, C.J.PResources for the Future, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS)Washington, DC2002forest firesfire causesThis short paper summarizes the conclusions of a 1999 investigation into the causes of fires in six communities in East Kalimantan. Drawing on the author’s long term experience with the Kenyah (inhabitants of five of the communities), perceived causes of the fires in these six locations were documented. Ten propositions relating to fire causes are listed here, as a preliminary step in the development of a typology of causes of fire. The first three general propositions relate to environmental conditions like drought, to human conditions like the response time required to adapt to environmental change, and to political conditions like corrupt and uncoordinated governance. Five propositions revolve around the conditions that evolve when multiple actors with different values, patterns of behaviour, and access to resources are thrown together. The final two propositions relate to economic issues (potential for gain and need). The paper concludes with a simple scoring system that may contribute to identifying fire-prone communities in the future, and to developing appropriate solutions to the relevant fire causes. ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1149Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Which way forward?: people, forests, and policymaking in IndonesiaIDForest and regional autonomy: the challenge of sharing the profits and painsDermawan, A.Resosudarmo, I.A.PResources for the Future, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS)Washington, DC2002forest resourcesforest policydecentralizationlegislationforestry lawregional governmentincomeFor more than thirty years beginning in the early 70’s, the forests of Indonesia were administered and managed centrally; mirroring the centralistic characteristics of the way the Indonesian government had functioned during the same period. The first day of year 2001, however, marked a momentous change in Indonesian history, when it is formally effective that the authority or power of a significant chunk of decision-making in various aspects was transferred to local governments, including authority with regard forests. This paper attempts to present documentation and preliminary findings on what has been happening in the forestry arena in the period of transition from a centrally managed administration to decentralized administration. Field research has been done from the first quarter until the third quarter of year 2000 in four forest-rich provinces to document the process of decentralization on the ground. The methodology used was interviews with numerous informants of various stakeholders in forestry or forestry related activities at the provincial, regency, and village levels, in addition to secondary data for background materials. Preliminary findings suggest that the general perceptions of the regions toward decentralization were a mix of enthusiasm, pessimism, confusion, uncertainty, and pride in taking more responsibility. Regions have tended to be more proactive in taking advantage of their potential to raise revenues from forests. These will undoubtedly have some implications on forest resources and communities living in forested areas.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1150Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Which way forward?: people, forests, and policymaking in IndonesiaIDForests and poverty alleviationFAOFAORome, Italy2003forest resourcespovertydeveloping countriesnatural resourcesIt focuses on the role of forests, particularly natural ones, in poverty alleviation in developing countries. While some attention is given to the potential of planted forests and agroforestry to alleviate poverty, space constraints allow only a passing reference to trees outside forests. Thus, while not attempting to provide an extensive analysis of the topic, the chapter defines forest-based poverty alleviation, examines the potential of forests in this regard, notes obstacles to progress, identifies conditions that may strengthen the role of forests in alleviating poverty, and proposes several strategies to improve the contributions of the forest sector. Forests can be vital safety nets, helping rural people to avoid, mitigate or rise out of poverty. This function is unknown to many policy-makers and planners because it is not well understood or explained. One reason is that the contribution of forests to poor households is largely unrecorded in national statistics, as most of it is for subsistence or for trade on local markets. In addition, most wealth from timber goes to better-off segments of society, while some aspects of the access to and processing of timber resources actually inhibit their potential to assist marginalized people. Despite these obstacles, the contribution of forests to poverty alleviation can be increased, provided that decision-makers recognize and act on this potential.http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y7581E/y7581e08.htm#P0_211Chapteren92-5-104865-7CIFOR Head Quarter1153FAO State of the world's forests 2003IDPobreza y bosques en America Latina: una agenda de accionKaimowitz, DPlan de Accion Forestal para Guatemala (PAFG)Ciudad, Guatemala2002forest managementforest policytenure systemslow income groupsrural developmentconferencesThis chapter is also published in Revista Forestal Centroamericana, no. 39-40, 2002. [online] URL: http://webbeta.catie.ac.cr/bancoconocimiento/R/RevistasRNA38-39Articulo4/RevistasRNA38-39Articulo4.asp?CodSeccion=48Approximately 25 millon people live in the main forested regions of Latin America. The forestry sector there directly provides two or three million jobs and perhaps another three or four million people work in related activities. Many poor households use fuelwood, hunt wild animals, and benefit from the environmental services forests provide. A pro-poor forest agenda for the region should include greater tenure rights over forests for small farmers, indigenous people, and local communities, fewer and simpler forestry regulations, programs that provide credit and information about markets and technology, better working conditions for forestry workers, and efforts to bring peace to forested regions.Chapterpt99922-794-0-0CIFOR Head Quarter11552nd Congreso Forestal LatinoAmericano, Guatemala, agosto de 2002: memoriaIDDevolution and Indonesia's new forestry lawWollenberg, E.Kartodihardjo, HResources for the Future, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS)Washington, DC2002forestry lawforest resourcesright of accesscommunitiesgovernmentIndonesia’s new basic forestry law makes some promising steps towards devolving control over forests to customary communities. This chapter analyzes the law’s provisions for new institutional arrangements, “customary communities” and co-operatives. The analysis shows how the extent of centralized control over these institutions potentially limits the law’s support for local management. Rights to local management under the new law are vulnerable to abuse if they are aquired by unintended parties. Empowerment of customary communities is constrained by the restrictions on economic rights. For devolution to occur, the implementing regulations should create legal possibilities for communities to manage with more certainty, to gain secure access to valuable economic benefits and to overcome conflicts with more powerful groups. A broader base of civil society organisational capacity and systematic checks and balances within government are necessary to support these changes.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1142Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Which way forward?: people, forests, and policymaking in IndonesiaIDTimber management and related policies: a reviewResosudarmo, I.A.PResources for the Future, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS)Washington, DC2002forest managementtimbersforest exploitationeconomic developmentforest policyreviewsThe forests of Indonesia have been a major source of foreign exchange and have provided substantial employment opportunities. But evidence indicates that commercial forest harvests in Indonesia have been carried out in an economically unsustainable manner. The dramatic economic and political changes in Indonesia in 1997-99 have potentially increased pressures on remaining timber resources, and the economic crisis and national leadership transition have given rise to demands for substantial changes in the management of forests. It is therefore timely to review commercial timber activities and policies to date. This paper reviews commercial forest practices and national forestry policies that affect the commercial timber sector, along with contributing factors outside the forestry sector that may have affected commercial forest practices. It finds that existing policies are insufficient to achieve sustainable management, or are ineffectively enforced. At the same time, current conditions offer an opportunity to carry out important policy changes in relation to the commercial timber sector. A preliminary analysis of these changes shows the timber sector is subject to greater potential pressures than ever before, but that there are also possibilities for important policy improvements.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1143Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Which way forward?: people, forests, and policymaking in IndonesiaIDTimber concession reform: questioning the "sustainable logging" paradigmBarr, CResources for the Future, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS)Washington, DC2002loggingconcessionsforest policychangesustainabilityeconomic analysisSince the mid-1980s, policy discussions aimed at promoting sustainable forest management in Indonesia have focused almost exclusively on reforming the HPH (Hak Pengusahaan Hutan) timber concession system. Policy interventions proposed by the World Bank and other advocates of the “sustainable logging” reform agenda have generally been structured around three key principles – selective cutting, full rent capture, and market-based efficiency. This chapter examines five basic assumptions made by proponents of HPH reform and the policy prescriptions that emerge from them. It argues that HPH reform is unlikely to succeed in reducing Indonesia’s timber harvests to the 'sustainability threshhold' of 25 million m3 per year promoted by the government in the 1990s. The HPH reform agenda fails to address the supply-demand imbalance that exists within Indonesia’s wood processing industries and new technologies that have made previously marginal areas and species commercially viable. It also overlooks the marked decline in the volume of logs generated by concession-holders since the 1980s, as well as a corresponding rise in large-scale forest conversion. Moreover, proponents of the “sustainable logging” paradigm erroneously conclude that sustainable concession management is profitable and that timber companies will have an economic incentive to employ sustainable harvesting practices if they are required to do so.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1144Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Which way forward?: people, forests, and policymaking in IndonesiaIDThe political economy of Indonesia's oil palm subsectorCasson, AResources for the Future, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS)Washington, DC2002oil palmsplantationsforest plantationsdevelopmenteconomic crisesenvironmental degradationThe Indonesian oil palm subsector expanded rapidly after 1967. Much of this growth has occured in the last decade and posed a significant threat to Indonesia's existing forest cover. It has also displaced local communities and increased social conflict. This chapter attempted to determine where the growth has already occured, what effect this growth has had on forest cover, and the implications of further growth on Indonesia's forests. Over the last decade, oil palm development has primarily occured within Sumatra and increasingly in Kalimantan. Plantations development has been directed to Eastern Indonesia primarily in Kalimantan and Irian Jaya but industry was more interested in developing plantations in Sumatra because it has necessary infrastructure required to process palm oil and labours. This has increased the potential for further expansion to be located within production forest, limited production forest, and, increasingly, protected forest areas. However, companies continue to apply for concessions in Kalimantan and Irian Jaya so that they can gain access to timber readily available in these outher islands. This explains why many oil palm developments are occuring on production forestlands in Kalimantan and Irian Jaya. The allocation of production forestland to oil palm developer has accelerated conversion and environmental degradation.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1145Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Which way forward?: people, forests, and policymaking in IndonesiaIDEffects of crisis and political change, 1997-1999Sunderlin, W.DResources for the Future, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS)Washington, DC2002economic crisesagricultural sectorforestsforest policyhouseholdsAn economic crisis and political changes that have occurred in Indonesia since 1997 have presented grave dangers but also important opportunities for the country. On the one hand, the depreciation of the rupiah against the dollar is part of a drastic economic downturn, but on the other hand, it represents an opportunity for increased competitiveness of Indonesian exports and for increased prosperity for those involved in the export economy. The changeover of regimes from Soeharto to B.J. Habibie led to much political instability, which compounded economic problems, but at the same time it has offered the potential for fundamental policy changes. This article assesses the consequences of these changes -- both negative and positive -- on people living in forested areas, on commercial activity within the forest sector and on the extent of forest itself. Among the findings are that: (1) two-thirds of the people in forested areas have become worse off during the crisis compared with their situation in the year before the crisis; (2) during the crisis small farmers increased clearing of forests for perennial tree crops and decreased attention to food crops in shifting cultivation systems; (3) pulp and paper have replaced plywood as the mainstay source of export revenue in the forest sector, although the origins of this transformation pre-date the crisis and the change cannot be solely explained by the crisis; (4) illegal logging has boomed during the crisis, but also cannot be entirely explained by the crisis; (5) oil palm development has slowed in the crisis period but is poised for future growth; and (6) positive forest policy changes have been introduced but in general fall short of the expectations of the reform community in Indonesia.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1146Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Which way forward?: people, forests, and policymaking in IndonesiaIDCorporate debt and the Indonesian forestry sectorBarr, C.Brown, D.Casson, A.Kaimowitz, DResources for the Future, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS)Washington, DC2002economic crisesforest products industriesplantation cropscompaniesdebtriskforestsThe Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency (IBRA) holds US$ 4.1 billion in loans related to forest and estate crop activities, of which US$ 2.7 billion are nonperforming. Ten large conglomerates account for over 70% of the bad forest and estate crop debt. These groups are also responsible for some US$ 2.4 billion in domestic nonperforming loans in other sectors and US$ 15 billion in offshore debt. The current high level of non-performing loans stems, in large part, from the failure by banks to exercise due diligence (i.e., seriously assess the potential for loan default) when Indonesia’s forest-linked conglomerates sought to borrow funds prior to the crisis. Direct government subsidies for forest and estate crop activities also encouraged corporate risk taking. Strong evidence suggests that debt write-offs and loan restructuring may provide Indonesia’s forest-related industries with a substantial capital subsidy. This study projects that IBRA will eventually write-off US$ 1.3 – 1.9 billion of debts associated with timber, wood processing, pulp and paper, and oil palm investments. Debt write-off on this scale, together with IBRA’s current lack of supervision over the forest-related companies that owe it large sums of money, will serve as an impetus for debtor firms to continue to engage in practices involving an inordinate degree of financial risk. ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1147Colfer, C.J.P., Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (eds.) Which way forward?: people, forests, and policymaking in IndonesiaIDIntroduction: section 1: overviewShanley, P.Laird, S.A.Pierce, A.R.Guillen, AEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002non-timber forest productscertificationguidelinesCertification is relatively new to forest policy tool that attempts to foster responsible resource stewardship through the labeling of consumer products. While many lessons can be drawn from timber certification, transfer of existing timber-based guidelines and procedures to NTFPs is inappropriate. Non-timber forest resources are a more difficult group of products to certify than timber due to a multitude of factors, including their exceedingly diverse and idiosyncratic nature and social and ecological complexity. However, in spite of these challenges, opportunities exist to promote sound ecological and social practices in NTFP management and trade through market tools such as certification, and their potential realization in practice is the subject of this manual.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1132Shanley, P., Pierce, A.R., Laird, S.A. and Guillen, A. (eds.) Tapping the green market: certification and management of non-timber forest productsIDIntroduction: section 2: NTFPs and certificationShanley, P.Pierce, A.R.Laird, S.A.Guillen, AEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002non-timber forest productsspeciesdiversitySpecies profiles were gathered from non-timber forest product (NTFP) researchers around the globe. While not exhaustive, the profiles, taken as a whole, provide a glimpse into the diverse, complex and idiosyncratic universe that is encompassed by the term ‘NTFP’. The profiles vary widely in content and style and reflect the views of the individual researchers, the state of information regarding the species and the historic and present use and management of the plant.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1133Shanley, P., Pierce, A.R., Laird, S.A. and Guillen, A. (eds.) Tapping the green market: certification and management of non-timber forest productsIDConclusions and recommendationsShanley, P.Laird, S.A.Pierce, A.R.Guillen, AEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002non-timber forest productstradecertificationguidelinesNon-timber forest products (NTFPs) are not inherently ideal candidates for certification. They are most commonly consumed at a subsistence level, are traded locally and regionally, and most are not featured in markets open to ‘green’ or ‘fairtrade’ messages. However, for some of the NTFP species in trade, certification offers a way to improve market access, to capture a greater share of benefits at a local and community level, and to promote wider conservation objectives. Many of the most valuable NTFPs are also those most poorly managed, and certification offers consumers a chance to buy wisely and responsibly, rewarding companies and producers who seek to purchase and produce sustainable and fairly traded raw and processed materials. This chapter discusses some overarching lessons learned by the NTFP certification project and review potential opportunities and challenges. It concludes with some recommendations for ‘next steps’ in developing and implementing effective NTFP certification.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1134Shanley, P., Pierce, A.R., Laird, S.A. and Guillen, A. (eds.) Tapping the green market: certification and management of non-timber forest productsIDSumatra benzoin (Styrax spp.)Katz, E.Garcia-Fernandez, C.Goloubinoff, MEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002styrax spp.benzoinnon-timber forest productsusestradecertificationresinsSeveral species of Styrax trees from Sumatra and Indochina produce benzoin resin. This resin is used for incense, perfume and pharmaceutical industries. Formerly, S. benzoin was cultivated in low lands of Palembang and North Sumatra but its importance decreased after 2nd World War. Now, product from S. paralleloneurum Perk that grows in North Sumatra highlands is the most valued. Batak farmers manage benzoin trees in agroforest system. Benzoin gardens recover high biodiversity level when abandoned. In some places these gardens are the only forest cover left. Farmers tap S paralleloneurum between June and September and collect the resin three months later. If done properly, benzoin can be extracted for nearly 60 years. It is necessary to dry the resin before transport because it melts and looses quality. Most of the production is used in Central Java in incense and cigarette manufactures. Only small part is exported to other countries via Singapore. In the 70's income from benzoin was good enough to allow Batak children to study in university. Now prices are less attractive for young farmers. Traditional market is stagnant but new niches can appear.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1131Shanley, P., Pierce, A.R., Laird, S.A. and Guillen, A. (eds.) Tapping the green market: certification and management of non-timber forest productsIDEcological issuesPierce, A.R.Shanley, PEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002non-timber forest productsforest ecologyharvestingimpactcertificationTo manage non-timber forest products (NTFPs) properly, it is imperative to have a basic understanding of the biology and ecology of the target species, the site capabilities of the forest under management and the response of the target species o harvesting and other human and natural disturbances. This chapter explores ecological issues relating to NTFP harvest, including knowledge of species harvested, harvest impacts and the importance of trained harvesters.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1128Shanley, P., Pierce, A.R., Laird, S.A. and Guillen, A. (eds.) Tapping the green market: certification and management of non-timber forest productsIDThe interface of timber and non-timber resources: declining resources for subsistance livelihoods - a southern case study from Brazilian AmazoniaShanley, P.Luz, L.Cymerys, MEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002non-timber forest productsforest productsspeciesplantsanimalsusessocial welfareGiven the importance of non-timber forest resources to subsistence livelihoods, the increased rate of logging in Amazonia, and the pronounced overlap of timber and non-timber species, it is important to evaluate the altered composition and abundance of NTFPs. In this changing landscape, it is vital to understand which species are widely utilized for their non-timber value, which NTFPs species are extracted for timber and what their comparative timber and non-timber value is. To answer these questions, quantitative and qualitative results of a seven-year study are provided on the use of plant and animal forest resources by 30 households residing in an area of terra firme (upland dry) forest undergoing selective logging.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1129Shanley, P., Pierce, A.R., Laird, S.A. and Guillen, A. (eds.) Tapping the green market: certification and management of non-timber forest productsBRIntroducing criteria and indicators for monitoring and auditing forest management in the Brazilian AmazonPokorny B.Sabogal, C.Prabhu, R.Silva, J. N. MCIFOR and Embrapa Amazonia OrientalBelem, Brazil2002criteriaindicatorsdevelopmentmethodologytropical forestsmonitoringauditingCIFORThe development of criteria and indicators (C&I) for good forest management was identified as one of the essential components of a research and demonstration project in the Brazilian Amazon under the leadership of Embrapa Eastern Amazon and CIFOR. Four steps were envisaged: (1) Definition of a preliminary list of regionally adapted C&I during an international expert workshop; (2) Evaluation and refinement of this list by four key stakeholder groups (researchers, government officials, managers, and local actors); (3) Development of monitoring and auditing prototypes based on the assessment results, and (4) Validation of the defined instruments through supervised application in different forest enterprises and auditing entities. As part of this process, a field-test of a preliminary list of C&I by stakeholder group confirmed the high practicability of C&I based control activities as well as the need and potential of participatory methods in the development process. Further analysis confirmed that practical work on C&I systems will have to focus more at the verifiers level. Social and ecological verifiers need to be more specific and practicable methods for their assessing will have to be developed. To ensure an effective interpretation of monitoring and auditing results it is recommended to structure the C&I in four categories: existence and quality of documentation, efficient implementation plans, impact of enterprise activities, and external conditions for sustainability.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter679Sabogal, C., Macedo Silva, J.N. (eds.) Manejo integrado de florestas umidas neotropicais por industrias e comunidades: aplicando resultados de pesquisa, envolvendo atores e definindo politicas publicas: Simposio Internacional da IUFRO, Belem PA, Brazil, 4-7 Decembre, 2000.BRBaobab bark (Adansonia digitata)Romero, C.Grundy, I.Campbell, B.M.Cunningham, A.BEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002non-timber forest productsAdansonia digitatadescriptionsusescertificationbarkharvestinginstitutionsThis chapter provides short description of the plant, its variety of products from its bark, the wood and seed. Further it provides a brief information on the ecology and the impact of bark harvesing by the local people and other stresses. One of the studies reported that harvesting was more prevalent during the dry season when people had available time due to reduced agricultural activites. Despite traditional rules governing over baobab harvesting the practice of overharvesting has been widespread in the study area.Problems with managing baobab bark are currently being exacerbated by weak institutions and poverty. This chapter concludes that under present conditions, the potential for certification of baobab bark is low.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1126Shanley, P., Pierce, A.R., Laird, S.A. and Guillen, A. (eds.) Tapping the green market: certification and management of non-timber forest productsZWThe process of drafting and revising guidelines for NTFP certificationShanley, P.Laird, S.AEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002guidelinescertificationnon-timber forest productsThe process of creating the NTFP guidelines involved numerous experts and collaborators across the globe, with a particular emphasis on Latin America. The guidelines were drafted between 1997 and 1998, with input from the NTFP certification advisory committee, certification experts and other forestry and NTFP specialists. Field-testing took place in three countries: Mexico (chicle), Bolivia (Brazil nut and palm heart), during the first half of 1998.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1127Shanley, P., Pierce, A.R., Laird, S.A. and Guillen, A. (eds.) Tapping the green market: certification and management of non-timber forest productsZWDeforestation and forest degradation in lowland BoliviaPacheco, PUniversity of Florida PressGainesville2002deforestationtenure systemsstructural adjustmenteconomic policyexportslowland areasThis chapter analyses the causes of deforestation and forest degradation in the Bolivian Amazon. The study predicated on the assumption that the factors involved have less to do with the forest sector itself than with events that take place within the country's political, economic, and social arenas. This paper reviews the situation of land tenure in the Bolivian lowlands and summarises the information about the magnitutes of deforestation and forest degradation until 1985 and followed by the evaluation on the changes in forest cover associated with structural adjustment policies. It concludes that deforestation rates in lowland Bolivia have been relatively low compared to those observed in other countries where tropical forests are found. Recent policies to stimulate the export of soybeans and wood products have had important positive effects. However, long-term benefits could have been greater, and environmental costs could have been lower, if development policies had been linked to initiatives that led to a more equal distribution of land and forest resources.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1108Wood, C.H and Porro, R. (eds.) Deforestation and land use in the AmazonBOTrading forest carbon to promote the adoption of reduced impact loggingSmith, J.Applegate, GFAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificBangkok, Thailand2002carbon sequestrationtradeimprovement fellingsloggingclean development mechanismprojectsincentivesforest managementconferencesThe Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol raised the hopes of many, that payment for carbon sequestration services would provide a significant incentive for sustainable management practices in industrial forestry in tropical countries. Data to assess how realistic these hopes are, remain scant and high degree of uncertainty about CDM rules make assessment hazardous. The analysis in this paper focuses on the potential for using carbon trading to stimulate adoption of reduced impact logging (RIL)-based sustainable forest management. The result shows that: (i) expectations about the contribution carbon projects could make towards inducing sustainable timber harvesting should be scaled down; (ii) the cost-effectiveness of RIL-based SFM projects is likely to be highly-specific; (iii) RIL projects should be targeted to areas where timber volumes under RIL are similar to volumes under conventional logging with repeated harvesting at short intervals; (iv) pro-active measures could also be taken to expand the niche for RIL projects and reduce the risk of leakage and project failure; (v) CDM RIL projects should not be perceived as a silver bullet for inducing sustainable management and preventing forest degradation. (YS)http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/Chapter-26.pdfChapteren974-7946-23-8CIFOR Head Quarter1094Enters, T., Durst, P.B., Applegate, G.B., Kho, P.C.S., Man, G. (eds.) Applying reduced impact logging to advance sustainable forest managementBOFinancial costs of reduced impact timber harvesting in IndonesiaApplegate, GFAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificBangkok, Thailand2002forest economicsloggingreduced impact loggingcost benefit analysiscase studiestropical forestsconferencesSeveral Indonesian plywood industry companies involved in logging are beginning to adopt improved harvesting practices. A number of organizations and individuals have undertaken analyses of the costs and impacts of implementing selected reduced impact logging (RIL) components. These analyses include cost estimates of the impact of RIL compared with conventional logging (CL). This work has been undertaken in an attempt to provide support for the adoption of the various RIL components. While there is a general consensus on the benefits of RIL to the forest environment compared to CL, there is considerable disparitiy in the estimates in the financial costs of RIL in comparison to CL in Indonesia. This paper summarizes the results from four case studies of harvesting operation in Indonesia where selected components of RIL have been implemented. The results of the case studies indicate the following: difficulties in determining harvesting costs by component and activity that reflect the reality of commercial operations; inadequate provision of realistic cost estimates; and the need to understand the cost implications of the interrelationships among harveting components. It concludes with recommendations to assist with increase adoption of improved harvesting practices.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Articles/Chapter-17.pdfChapter163-173en974-7946-23-8CIFOR Head Quarter1093Enters, T., Durst, P.B., Applegate, G.B., Kho, P.C.S., Man, G. (eds.) Applying reduced impact logging to advance sustainable forest managementIDProgram kemitraan hutan tanaman (outgrower scheme) dalam pembangunan HTINawir, A.APusat Penelitian Dan Pengembangan Teknologi Hasil HutanBogor, Indonesia2001forest products industriesforest plantationspartnershipscommunity forestryconstraintsChapterid979-3132-01-9CIFOR Head Quarter1091Prosiding diskusi teknologi pemanfaatan kayu budidaya untuk mendukung industri perkayuan yang berkelanjutan, Bogor, 7 November 2001IDForests and the Kyoto protocol: implications for Asia's forestry agendaSmith, JIsland PressWashington, DC2002clean development mechanismtropical forestscarbon sequestrationdevelopment projectsEconomists have long argued that payment for the environmental services of forests could contribute to forest conservation and sustainable use. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol could make this concept a reality by allowing carbon-emitting industries in developed countries to meet a part of their emission reduction commitments by financing forestry projects that sequester carbon or protect carbon stocks in developing countries. The author argues that the CDM should not be seen as yet another silver bullet for saving tropical forests. However, there are ways to implement the CDM that could enhance the effectiveness of more conventional approaches and leverage support from stakeholders with conservation and development agendas. Implementing the CDM purely as a tool for carbon farming could derail the new forestry agenda. Proactive efforts will be needed in crafting CDM rules and designing projects such as embed CDM projects in an integrated program for sustainable forest management, prevent perverse incentives, use the CDM to leverage financial support for other environmental services and livelihood benefits. (YS)ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1083Wikramanayake, E. (et al.) Terrestrial ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a conservation assessmentIDImpact of invasive species on biodiversity conservation and poor people's livelihoodsPoulsen, J.GSecretariat of the Convention on Biological DiversityMontreal, Canada2001biodiversityconservationinvasionspeciesnon-timber forest productsutilizationAbstract of poster presentations - forests It is also published (reprinted) in Aliens Newsletter, 2001, 13: 8-9. Chapteren92-807-2007CIFOR Head Quarter1065Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity Assessment and management of alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats and species: abstracts of keynote addresses and posters presented at the sixth meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Tecnical and Technological Advice, held from 12 to 16 March 2001 in Montreal, CanadaIDLiterature review of impact assessment studies of potential application to natural resource management research (some literature resources)Spilsbury, M.J.Poulsen, JCIATCali, Colombia2001natural resourcesmanagementresearchliteratureimpactassessmentconferencesThis note is part of an on-going effort to gain insights to impact assessment and research uptake literature of relevance to natural resource management-related research. It is provided more for the reference list than for the merit of the associated text that is still at an early stage. Many more references have been collected but have yet to be screened for their potential relevance.http://www.inrm.cgiar.org/documents/cali_workshop.htmChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1063Workshop on Integrated Management for Sustainable Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries in Cali, Colombia, 28-31 August 2001IDCIFOR - using a 'system' approach to research evaluationSpilsbury, M.JFAO, TAC SecretariatRome, Italy2001researchimpactassessmentevaluationCIFORconferencesThe overarching objective for CIFOR is to ensure that research activities result in significant impacts. A secondary, but very important, requirement is to be able to measure and quantify impact. However, impact assessment at CIFOR is viewed as a component in the broader frame of research evaluation and within the dynamic system of identifying problems, planning solutions, producing outputs, promoting adoption, and securing positive outcomes in line with its mission. In the context of this changing environment, adaptation and learning are key institutional requirements. This paper describes CIFOR's work in relation to impact assessment and research evaluation more generally. It explores the rationale and strategy of the CIFOR programme on research impacts and describes key concepts such as "impact pathways", and efforts to foster an 'impact culture' within the organisation. Constraints, opportunities and other important issues in relation to impact assessment at CIFOR are also highlighted.http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/tac/spia0500/cifor.pdfChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1064The future of impact assessment in tthe CGIAR: needs, constraints and options. Proccedings of a workshop organised by the Standing Panel on Impact Assessment of the Technical Advisory Committee 3-5 May, 2000, FAO, Rome.IDEstudo da Capoeirade Oliveira, L.C.Goncalves Ferreira, M.D.S.Sabogal, CEmbrapa Amazonia OrientalBelem, Brazil2001ChapterptCIFOR Head Quarter1041Carvalheiro, K. de O., Goncalves, D. de A., Mattos, M.M., Ferreira, M. do S.G. (eds.) Agricultura familiar no nordeste paraense: informacoes preliminares como contribuicao ao manejo sustentavel da capoeiraIDResultados do estudo socioeconomico da agricultura familiarSmith, J.Palheta Ferreira, C.A.de Carvalho, R.A.Goncalves Ferreira, M.D.S.de Oliveira, L.C.van de Kop, PEmbrapa Amazonia OrientalBelem, Brazil2001ChapterptCIFOR Head Quarter1042Carvalheiro, K. de O., Goncalves, D. de A., Mattos, M.M., Ferreira, M. do S.G. (eds.) Agricultura familiar no nordeste paraense: informacoes preliminares como contribuicao ao manejo sustentavel da capoeiraIDThe history of displacement and forced settlement in West Kalimantan, Indonesia: implications for co-managing Danau Sentarum wildlife reserveWadley, R.LBerghahn BooksOxford, UK2002reserved areaswildlife conservationsettlementethnic groupshistoryhuman populationresource managementThe history of local settlement in conservation areas, even that occurring prior to conservation activities, is of great value in efforts to co-manage protected resources. It shows how local people came to be where they are now, and how they view the local landscape. It also indicates how reserve resources have been shaped by the people who have relied on them in the past; and it provides insight into present and future conditions, such as how resource competition between reserve residents is and might be structured and perceived. Thus, in conjunction with studies aimed at understanding present local resource use, attention needs to be given to settlement history in conservation areas as one critical component of the local condition. This paper focuses on the history of population change in and around Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, and its implications for co-management. There are numerous communities from two different ethnic groups - Iban swidden farmers and Melayu fishers - located within and around the reserve core, relying to various degrees on its resources. The demographic history of the lakes area is marked by population displacement and forced settlement. Over the years the Iban and the Melayu settled, used, and abandoned the area as wars and raiding ebbed and flowed. Today with a growing local population and increased resource competition, the reserve faces many critical challenges to its future.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter652Chatty, D. and Colchester, M. (eds.) Conservation and indigenous mobile peoples: displacement, forced settlement and sustainable developmentIDCIFOR research: forest products and people, rattan issuesBelcher, BFAORome, Italy2002canes and rattansnon-timber forest productsmanagementdevelopmentinternational comparisonspolicyeconomicsresearch projectsCIFORThe Forest Products and People programme (FPP) of the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) undertakes research to better understand the true role of non-timber forest products as tool to achieve development and conservation goals. The programme is undertaking an international comparative analysis of cases of forest product development, and a series of thematic case-based research projects designed to answer specific questions. An example is provided from a case study in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, where a traditional rattan cultivation system has been severely stressed by a combination of policy and economic factors. Government policies designed to encourage the domestic processing industry and monopsonistic manufacturing association have sharply depressed demand and prices. Other factors such as development of roads, industrial plantations, mining, and other economic activities offered alternatives that have led some rattan farmers to shift to new activities. And, recent wide spread of forest fires have destroyed large areas of rattan gardens, effectively forcing some rattan farmers out of business. This set of conditions offers a good opportunity to study people's responses and to analyse wheter and under what circumtances this particular intermediate forest product management system is a viable economic option now and in the future. As rattan remains an important commodity in Indonesia and internationally, and as the current farm-gate price for rattan appears to be artificially low, due in large part to the prevailing policy environment, the rattan garden system may remain viable, at least in the medium term.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1029Dransfield, J., Tesoro, F.O., and Manokaran, N. (eds.) Rattan: current research issues and prospects for conservation and sustainable developmentIDAssessing stakeholder agreements: a new research focus for CIFOR's plantation programme in Southeast AsiaGuizol, P.Cossalter, CForest Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural ResourcesManila, Philippines2001forest plantationsforest managementcollective agreementscommunitiesforest products industriescompaniesconferencesThe total amount of industrial plantations around the world is still small compared with the total are of global forests, but plantation forestry in the tropics is expected to increase quickly because of growing demand for timber and the depletion of wood from natural forests. Forestry plantations in the tropics have a comparative advantage over temperate plantations in terms of potentially higher yields. Tropical countries are trying to encourage greater private-sector investment in forestry plantations and downstream wood industries. In many countries, however, land ownership and access is disputed by a variety of stakeholders. A major challenge for plantation companies is to reach agreements with these stakeholders to ensure a supply of raw material. Agreements between plantation companies and communities or other stakeholders offer a means of meeting the different objectives of various groups. Yet, in actual forest planning decisions, some stakeholders have more power than the others. This is especially true when large international companies are dealing with local communities whose residents may have little understanding of what an agreement entails. In such a context whether agreements are sustainable is questionable. CIFOR's Plantation Programme is engaged in research to develop tools and methods for assessing and monitoring the viability of such agreements between plantation companies and other stakeholders.Chapteren971-8986-39-1CIFOR Head Quarter1009Philippines. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Forest Management Bureau Proceedings of the International Conference on Timber Plantation Development, November 7-9, 2000, Manila, PhilippinesIDDesigning sustainable large-scale industrial plantation landscapes: use of natural forest remnants and corridors to maintain biodiversity, retain environmental functions/services, and reduce social tensions between plantation companies and local peoplePoulsen, JSangju National University, Department of Forest ResourcesSangju, Korea2001plantationscorridor systemsforest products industrieseffectsbiodiversityenvironmental impactcommunity forestrycode of practiceforest managementconferencesTropical large-scale industrial plantations are rapidly expanding as a source of industrial wood and fuel and are also often used as part of afforestation and reforestation schemes. The article explores how appropriate design and management of natural forest corridors and remnant patches may be used to mitigate or reduce the negative impacts of large-scale industrial plantations on native biodiversity and towards maintenance of environmental and social functions of the original natural forest landscape. First, plantation landscapes should be designed so that the landscapes are penetrable and permeable for those biodiversity components which are of conservation concern in the area under consideration, but impenetrable and impermeable for pests, weeds, and invasive. Second, from a human/social standpoint, the priority must be to design plantation and manage landscapes in a way that minimizes the adverse impacts on the local people and communities living in and around these areas. This paper presents work conducted in Riau, Sumatra, Indonesia. Incentives for better landscape/spatial design and management of those areas that are set aside from production for corridors and conservation areas are identified. Corridors have been considered as merely constraints to maximizing short-term earnings. Potential short-term economic incentives and benefits include: minimizing plantation damage caused by wind throw, fire and insect pest attack (by functioning as windbreaks, firebreaks, and providing habitat for biological control organisms), protecting and maintaining water quality and supply to both the plantation stands and the people living there, providing resources such as beneficial plants, and other NTFPs, for those local people who live within and around the plantation landscape, and, decreasing the plantation establishment and maintenance cost. The paper also describes improved sets of criteria and indicators for sustainable management of large-scale plantations, by i) suggesting increasing emphasis on landscape scale and conservation and socio-economic issues, and, ii) ensuring that the criteria and indicators are sufficiently linked to practical management, specifically by establishing explicit links between the criteria and indicator sets and codes of practice.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1011Proceedings of the International Symposium on Rehabilitation of Degraded Forest Environment for the Next Generation, Department of Forest Resources, Sangju National University, Sangju, Korea, 23-27 April 2001IDHarvesting of non-timber forest products: is sustainability achievable?Nasi, RSecretariat of the Convention on Biological DiversityMontreal, Canada2001non-timber forest productsharvestingincomesustainabilityChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1013Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity Assessment, conservation and sustainalbe use of forest biodiversityIDTowards an ecosystem approach in designing large-scale industrial plantation landscapes: corridors for a win-win solutionPoulsen, J.GSecretariat of the Convention on Biological DiversityMontreal, Canada2001ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1039Assessment conservation and sustainalbe use of forest biodiversityIDGiving back: making research results relevant to local groups and conservationShanley, P.Laird, S.AEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002researchdiffusion of informationdecision makingrural communitieslocal peopleInformation generated by researchers to formulate policy and planning often remains in the domain of policy makers, academics and researchers, conceptually and geograhically distant from the region of study. Furthermore, governments and conservation organizations frequently make or promote land use decisions without fully informing or involving the local communities most affected. This article describes several case studies in which making research results available to local people held numerous conservation and development advantages, and improved project impact.Chapteren1-85383-698-2CIFOR Head Quarter1003Laird, S.A. (ed.) Biodiversity and traditional knowledge: equitable partnerships in practiceIDThe economics of sustainable forest management and wildlife conservation in tropical forestsByron, R.NColumbia University PressNew York, USA2001forest managementwildlife conservationcost benefit analysisloggingsustainabilityThe chapter examines the opportunities and limitations of economics to contribute to sustainable forest management and wildlife conservation. It began with a brief interview of the constraints facing natural resource economists, ending with a discussion of where these individuals can contribute to the sustainable forest management debate. This is followed by a discussion of current efforts to bring about change in the timber harvest status quo. Two case studies reviewing the costs and benefits associated with conventional and reduced impact logging practices are presented. The chapter closes with a discussion of how economics can contribute to the advancement of sustainable forest management practices in the near- and long-term.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1002Robert A. Fimbel, Alejandro Grajal, and John G. Robinson (eds.). The cutting edge: conserving wildlife in logged tropical forestsIDSocial learning in the collaborative management of community forests: lessons from the fieldBuck, L.Wollenberg, E.Edmunds, DCIFORBogor, Indonesia2001learningcommunity forestrysocial environmentforest managementconferencesCommunity forest management worldwide has involved diverse types and varying levels of success in social learning, yet little efforts has been made to analyze these experiences and link them to emerging social learning theory. This chapter is a synthesis of the contributions of the workshop participants to indicate what social learning is and how it could be enhanced. The most notable contribution of chapters was in making learning phenomena more visible and giving people the concepts and labels with which to analyze their experiences. Important institutional arrangements underlying social learning were facilitation and the platforms around which stakeholders met and learned. Different types of learning, the avenues for learning and the factors influencing learning are reviewed. Any endeavor to learn jointly must be assessed and implemented with sensitivity and strategic thingking to who can or should be participating and how.Chapteren979-8764-77-3CIFOR Head Quarter1001Wollenberg, E., Edmunds, D., Buck, L., Fox, J., Brodt, S. (eds.) Social learning in community forestsIDInstitutional collaboration and shared learning for forest management in Chivi Distict, ZimbabweNemarundwe, NCIFORBogor, Indonesia2001learningcommunity forestrysocial environmentforest managementcollaborationinstitutionsadaptationThis chapter examines processess of collaboration among institutions for communal woodland managemnet at the local level in Zimbabwe and explores how these processess influence sustainable resources utilization. The author discusses how institutions adapt to changing social and environmental conditions. Based on case study evidence, I argue that community-based natural resource management works best in a context of institutional collaboration and shared learning. The author identifies three requirements for collaboration: the need for effective facilitation of experimental learning, equal power in learning process and the willingness to engage in multi-stage process that can be costly.Chapteren979-8764-77-3CIFOR Head Quarter1769Wollenberg, E., Edmunds, D., Buck, L., Fox, J., Brodt, S. (eds.) Social learning in community forestsZWExpanding our conceptual and methodological understanding of the role of trees and forests in rural livelihoodsLuckert, M.K.Campbell, B.MEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002valuationforest resourcesmethodologyhuman behaviourrural welfaresocial scienceslivelihoodsEstimates of forest values may enable us to inform policy makers, donor agencies, and local decision makers who are attempting to plan and implement interventions that improve livelihoods. However, it needs to link these values with patterns of behaviour; and link the patterns of behaviour with changes in livelihoods. Whether or not behavioural change occurs depends on a number of factors; these include property rights, social differentiation, time, risk perceptions, and whether values are considered in “partial” or “general” contexts. Discussion of these factors indicate that the estimation of values themselves are not as important as their interpretations within specific contexts. This article suggests that the conceptual models of people and their resources, in terms of livelihoods, need to be expanded. It also suggests that it needs to consider relevant systems beyond socio-economic variables. It also needs to expand the methodological boundaries; thus, for example, valuation approaches need to be interfaced with GIS, systems modelling. The infancy of using applied economics tools in developing country settings is evident throughout this book. Indeed, many of the tools are so new, and complex, that their use is still sometimes hotly debated. Nonetheless, the examples presented in this book show that great strides have been made, largely through benefits of inter-disciplinary work. Economics experts, specialising in valuation methods and property rights, have been working with sociologists, anthropologists and ecologists to attempt to address the complexities inherent in introducing human dimensions into research to inform development projects and policies.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter997Luckert, M.K. and Campbell, B.M. (eds.) Uncovering the hidden harvest: valuation methods for woodlands and forest resourcesZWTowards understanding the role of forests in rural livelihoodsCampbell, B.M.Luckert, M.KEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002forest resourceswoodlandsrural welfareforest productshouseholdseconomicsvaluationmethodologyTo understand the role of forest products in households people need to understand the nature of rural livelihoods and the characteristics of forest products. Rural households typically have a wide livelihood portfolio, encompassing a range of activities. They also generally face low availability of capital, are prone to risks and have little formal education. Many forest products are common pool resources, with some showing very little exclusivity. Many of them can be brought into a marketing chain with minimum capital investment. In the face of risk, forest products are often a source of sustenance or can be used to raise cash in the case of emergencies. Most forest products do not require high skill levels to bring them into production. There is thus a strong match between the characteristics of the rural poor and the characteristics of forest products. While this book is focussed on households, it is always necessary to see the household within the broader framework, of national policies, of a specific macro-economic framework, of international tourist markets, of a global climate, etc. The book is directed to non-economists working in the context of developing countries. The purpose is to provide an overview of methods that may be used to assess the economic importance of forests to household livelihoods. The methods are presented with a number of examples of their use, most of them drawn from developing countries. There is a danger that the numbers derived by valuation become ends in themselves. A valuation exercise is only one part of a much broader understanding that is required. The authors stress the need to understand the complexity inherent in rural livelihood strategies, to fully understand the context of particular case studies, and to use valuation only as one step towards understanding decision-making within rural households.ChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter998Luckert, M.K. and Campbell, B.M. (eds.) Uncovering the hidden harvest: valuation methods for woodlands and forest resourcesZWParticipatory methods for exploring livelihood values derived from forests: potential and limitationsNemarundwe, N.Richards, MEarthscan PublicationsLondon, UK2002participationparticipatory rural appraisalrapid rural appraisalforest resourcestechniquesassessmentplanningrural communitiesrural developmentChapterenCIFOR Head Quarter1508Luckert, M.K. and Campbell, B.M. (eds.) Uncovering the hidden harvest: valuation methods for woodlands and forest resourcesZWHacia la comprension del rol los bosques en la subsistencia ruralCampbell, B.M.Luckert, M.KNordan-ComunidadMontevideo, Uruguay2002forest resourceswoodlandsrural welfareforest productshouseholdseconomicsvaluationmethodologyAlso available in EnglishTo understand the role of forest products in households people need to understand the nature of rural livelihoods and the characteristics of forest products. Rural households typically have a wide livelihood portfolio, encompassing a range of activities. They also generally face low availability of capital, are prone to risks and have little formal education. Many forest products are common pool resources, with some showing very little exclusivity. Many of them can be brought into a marketing chain with minimum capital investment. In the face of risk, forest products are often a source of sustenance or can be used to raise cash in the case of emergencies. Most forest products do not require high skill levels to bring them into production. There is thus a strong match between the characteristics of the rural poor and the characteristics of forest products. While this book is focussed on households, it is always necessary to see the household within the broader framework, of national policies, of a specific macro-economic framework, of international tourist markets, of a global climate, etc. The book is directed to non-economists working in the context of developing countries. The purpose is to provide an overview of methods that may be used to assess the economic importance of forests to household livelihoods. The methods are presented with a number of examples of their use, most of them drawn from developing countries. There is a danger that the numbers derived by valuation become ends in themselves. A valuation exercise is only one part of a much broader understanding that is required. The authors stress the need to understand the complexity inherent in rural livelihood strategies, to fully understand the context of particular case studies, and to use valuation only as one step towards understanding decision-making within rural households.Chapteres9974-42-101-2CIFOR Head Quarter1509Luckert, M.K. and Campbell, B.M. (eds.) Evaluando la cosecha oculta de los bosques: metodos de valuacion para bosques y recursos forestalesZWExpandiendo nuestro conocimiento conceptual y metodologico sobre el rol de arboles y bosques en la subsistencia ruralLuckert, M.K.Campbell, B.MNordan-ComunidadMontevideo, Uruguay2002valuationforest resourcesmethodologyhuman behaviourrural welfarelivelihoodssocial sciencesAlso available in English.Estimates of forest values may enable us to inform policy makers, donor agencies, and local decision makers who are attempting to plan and implement interventions that improve livelihoods. However, it needs to link these values with patterns of behaviour; and link the patterns of behaviour with changes in livelihoods. Whether or not behavioural change occurs depends on a number of factors; these include property rights, social differentiation, time, risk perceptions, and whether values are considered in “partial” or “general” contexts. Discussion of these factors indicate that the estimation of values themselves are not as important as their interpretations within specific contexts. This article suggests that the conceptual models of people and their resources, in terms of livelihoods, need to be expanded. It also suggests that it needs to consider relevant systems beyond socio-economic variables. It also needs to expand the methodological boundaries; thus, for example, valuation approaches need to be interfaced with GIS, systems modelling. The infancy of using applied economics tools in developing country settings is evident throughout this book. Indeed, many of the tools are so new, and complex, that their use is still sometimes hotly debated. Nonetheless, the examples presented in this book show that great strides have been made, largely through benefits of inter-disciplinary work. Economics experts, specialising in valuation methods and property rights, have been working with sociologists, anthropologists and ecologists to attempt to address the complexities inherent in introducing human dimensions into research to inform development projects and policies.Chapteres9974-42-101-2CIFOR Head Quarter1510Luckert, M.K. and Campbell, B.M. (eds.) Evaluando la cosecha oculta de los bosques: metodos de valuacion para bosques y recursos forestalesZWMetodos participativos para explorar los valores de subsistencia derivados de los bosques: potenciales y limitacionesNemarundwe, N.Richards, MNordan-ComunidadMontevideo, Uruguay2002participationenvironmental assessmentvaluationlocal peoplemethodologyIt is also available in EnglishChapteres9974-42-101-2CIFOR Head Quarter1511Luckert, M.K. and Campbell, B.M. (eds.) Evaluando la cosecha oculta de los bosques: metodos de valuacion para bosques y recursos forestalesZWMunicipal governments and forest management in Bolivia and NicaraguaKaimowitz, D.Pacheco, P.Mendoza, R.Barahona, TKluwer Academic PublishersDordrecht, Netherlands2001decentralizationlocal governmentcommunitiesparticipationdecision makingafforestationloggingprotected areasThis paper analyzes the growing role of municipal governments in Bolivia and Nicaragua in forest-related issues on the basis of some thirty case studies. It first provides background information on forest issues and legislation concerning municipal involvement in forest issues in the two countries. It then uses the case study material to derive some initial responses to six frequently asked questions about municipal forestry activities. It concludes that municipalities only devote a small proportion of their resources to these issues but show increasing interest and concern. Heavily forested municipalities tend to view forests as a productive asset, while the more deforested municipalities have greater concern for environmental degradation. Decentralization has opened opportunities for previously marginalized stakeholders to participate in forest policy decisions, but has not guaranteed that this will occur in every case. It has also favored local producers over outside interests. Inter-agency environmental commissions have achieved mixed results in Nicaragua. Municipalities implement a variety of forestry activities. However, the impact of increased municipal participation in forest issues on both forests and local livelihoods remains small compared to the magnitude of the problems. National government agencies, donor projects, NGOs, and community organizations could substantially improve these impacts in the future.Chapteren0-7923-7171-2CIFOR Head Quarter988Palo, M., Uusivuori, J. and Mery, G. (eds.) World forests, markets and policiesBOForest cover and agricultural technologyAngelsen, A.Kaimowitz, DKluwer Academic PublishersDordrecht, Netherlands2001agriculturetechnologydeforestationtropical forestsfarmersobjectivesconstraintsmarketsA widespread belief among development and forest researchers and practitioners holds that technological progress in tropical agriculture is good for forest conservation. Higher yield enables farmers to produce the same amount of food on less agricultural land. The alternative view suggests that productivity improvements make it more profitable for farmers and companies to convert forests to agriculture. New agricultural technologies should therefore stimulate deforestation. This article synthesizes research done by the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) on this issue. It points to several critical factors which can make new technologies speed up or slow down the rate of deforestation: the market characteristics, the farmers' objectives and constraints, the technologies' labor and capital intensities, and the agricultural systems and areas in which the technology is applied. Several empirical studies are used to illustrate the importance of these factors. While new technologies in frontier agriculture often stimulate forest clearing, conditions and technologies for "win-win" outcomes also exist or can be created by appropriate policies.Chapteren0-7923-7171-2CIFOR Head Quarter989Palo, M., Uusivuori, J. and Mery, G. (eds.) World forests, markets and policiesBOManagement of secondary forests in colonist swidden agriculture in Peru, Brazil and NicaraguaSmith, J.Finegan, B.Sabogal, C.Goncalves Ferreira, M.D.S.Siles Gonzales, G.van de Kop, P.Diaz Barba, AKluwer Academic PublishersDordrecht, Netherlands2001resource managementsecondary forestsshifting cultivationfallowagriculturesettlementforestsfrontier areasRecent studies have shown that although swidden agriculture contributes to tropical deforestation in Latin America, swidden farmers also regenerate significant areas of secondary forests on their farms as part of the following process. This paper discusses the opportunities and constraints to farmers' regeneration and management of secondary forests. The analysis generalizes findings from case studies of new and old settlement areas in Peru, Brazil and Nicaragua, to derive generic management principles. In each country diagnostic farm surveys, multi-resource forest inventories and farmer-participatory research were carried out. Results show that about 25% of farm area remains under secondary forest even after a century of settlement. Secondary forests are the only significant forest resource available to the rural poor in older settlement areas. Secondary forests consist primarily of secondary forest fallows. Small areas are also maintained more permanently. Results show that an integrated resource management approach will be required, with management of secondary forests complemented by policy reforms and management of soils and residual forests. Different management strategies will be required for new and older settlement areas. For older settlement areas, strategies to reduce pressures for shorter fallows are identified, as well as principles for management of secondary forest fallows for soil recuperation and forest products. For newer areas, policies and technologies for slowing down the conversion of residual forest to agriculture and secondary forest would result in more biodiversity conservation and less, but more productive, secondary forest at later stages of frontier development. Management of secondary forest for high timber productivity, complemented by trade in forest carbon, may induce farmers to convert some of their fallow forests to permanent secondary forests.Chapteren0-7923-7171-2CIFOR Head Quarter990Palo, M., Uusivuori, J. and Mery, G. (eds.) World forests, markets and policiesBRForest policies in Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and ZimbabweKowero, G.Kaoneka, A.S.Nhantumbo, I.Gondo, P.Jumbe, C.B.LKluwer Academic PublishersDordrecht, Netherlands2001forest policylegislationcommunitiesMany countries in eastern and southern Africa have lost significant natural forest resources. Initially the pace was gradual, but it has accelerated very much in the recent past. Some of the efforts made to contain the situation include revising past policies to improve forestry development and conservation. This paper traces the evolution of such policies together with corresponding implementation mechanisms in Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. Although broad policy statements on involving local communities in forestry have existed in some countries for several decades, adequate resources have not been committed for their effective operationalisation. Generally, the forestry sector in southern Africa has lagged behind other sectors in revising its policies to adequately reflect political and socio-economic changes. Political and socio-economic policies appear to have taken precedence over forest sector policies, with far reaching consequences for the sector. However, current forest policies are more comprehensive in terms of stakeholders considered and issues addressed.Chapteren0-7923-7171-2CIFOR Head Quarter991Palo, M., Uusivuori, J. and Mery, G. (eds.) World forests, markets and policiesMWNeed for criteria and indicators for SFM as a means of monitoring the compliance of the national forest policy in IndiaPrabhu, RIndian Institute of Forest Management